LESSONS  0]::^''t)'BJE,dts, 


GRADUATED   SERIES; 


DESIGNED    FOR 


Cljitorm  kMm  t\)t  ^tB  at  M'<  u)i  imxtm  pars : 


CONTAINING,    ALSO, 


INFORMATIOx\  ON  COMMON  OBJECTS. 


ARRANGED 


By   E.    a.   SITELDOT^, 

8UPT.   PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,   OSWKGO,    N     Y.,    WTlUtU    OF   ELEMENTARY  INBTKUCTION, 
SBADINO    BUOK    AND   ClIAl'.To,    ET(J.,  ET(;. 


NEW  YORK: 
SCRIBNER,    ARMSTRONG     *t    CO., 


LB 


l  C' 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Concress.  in  the  year  1863,  by 

•  \^HAKCE8   hCUIBNEB, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
3oBtLern  District  of  New  York. 

EDUCATION  UEI.*i'l'# 


Trow's 
Printing  and  Bookbinding  Co., 

PRINTERS    AND    BOOKBINDERS, 

205-213  /iast  \ith  St., 

NBW   YORK. 


:-iy"^. 


PEEFACE 


The  fourteenth  edition  of  "  Lessons  on  Objects  " 
was  published  in  London  in  1855,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Home  and  Colonial  Training  Institution,  and 
underwent  at  that  time  a  thorough  revision. 

In  this  American  edition  many  changes  have  been 
made  in  the  arrangement  of  the  Lessons.  Some 
of  the  terms  have  been  modified,  others  left  out  al- 
together. A  number  of  the  lessons  have  been  omit- 
ted and  others  substituted  in  their  place,  and  much 
information  on  common  objects  has  been  added.  In 
the  original  work  there  were  but  few  Model  Lessons  ; 
in  this,  a  large  additional  number  have  been  inserted. 
These  have  been  taken  from  "  Manual  of  Elementary  In- 
struction," ''  Model  Lessons,"  and  '*  Notes  and  Sketches 
of  Lessons,"  all  London  publications.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  Steps  correspond  to  the  arrangement  in  the 
"  Manual  of  Elementary  Instruction."  The  first  three 
steps  are  designed  for  the  first  three  years  of  the  child's 
school  life,  or  for  the  Primary  Schools.  The  fourth  and 
fifth  steps  are  adapted  to  the  junior  or  intermediate 
grade,  or  for  pupils  from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 

The  Models  given  are  designed  to  aid  the  teacher 
in  the  preparation  of  her  lessons,  as  suggestions  in  re- 

54  1224 


PREFACE. 


gard  to  the  proper  method  of  arranging  and  present- 
ing them,  and  not  as  forms  to  be  implicitly  or  blindly 
followed. 

In  cases  where  lists  of  the  names  of  the  qualities  of 
objects  are  given,  it  is  not  essential  that  the  children 
should  be  led  to  the  discovery  of  all  the  qualities  named. 

As  the  object  of  these  Lessons  is  to  cultivate  the 
senses,  to  awaken  and  quicken  observation,  and  lead 
the  children  to  observe  carefully  everything  in  nature 
about  them  that  comes  within  the  range  of  the  senses, 
it  is  important  as  far  as  possible  to  give  the  children  a 
good  deal  of  latitude,  and  let  the  discoveries  be  their 
own,  except  as  they  may  be  guided  in  part  by  the 
teacher.  So  that  if  they  should  leave  out  in  their  in- 
vestigations some  qualities  named,  and  put  in  others  not 
named,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  importance,  provided  they 
are  correct  as  far  as  they  go,  and  accuracy  of  ohserva^ 
tion  is  cultivated.  It  should  be  added,  that  as  the  ideas 
are  clearly  developed,  the  giving  of  terms  to  express 
these  ideas  is  d  ^signed  as  a  preparation  for  ''  Language 
Lessons,"  and  to  give  the  children  a  vocabulary  by 
which  they  are  enabled  to  express  the  observations  they 
are  continually  making  oir  the  objects  of  the  external 
world.  Thus  observation  gjid  language  are  both  culti- 
vated. 

We  cannot  do  better  here  than  insert  the  Preface 
to  the  Fourteenth  London  Edition, 


PREFACE 

TO    THE    FOURTEENTH    LONDON    EDITION. 


When  this  work  was  first  presented  to  tlio  public,  nearly  tliiitj' 
years  since,  the  idea  of  systematically  using  the  material  world  as 
one  of  the  means  of  educating  the  minds  of  children,  was  so  novel 
and  untried  a  thing  in  England,  that  the  title  "  Lessons  on  Ob- 
jects "  excited  many  a  smile,  and  the  success  of  the  little  volume 
was  deemed  to  be,  at  best,  very  dubious.  The  plain  sound  sense 
of  the  plan,  however,  soon  recommended  it  to  our  teachers,  and 
they  discovered  that  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  do  not  form 
the  sole  basis  of  elementary  education,  but  that  the  objects  and 
actions  of  every-day  life  should  have  a  very  prominent  place  in 
their  programme. 

In  spito  of  the  ominous  forebodings  which  attended  the  first 
introduction  of  this  little  volume,  the  public  has  given  a  decided 
sanction  to  the  system  of  teaching  it,  and  the  degree  in  which  it 
has  in  consequence  modified  books  for  the  young  and  the  practice 
of  elementary  instruction,  can  scarcely  be  calculated. 

Successive  editions  of  the  Lessons  have  issued  rapidly  from  the 
press,  hitherto  without  any  alteration ;  but  it  is  now  thought  desira- 
ble to  profit  by  the  experience  gained  by  the  introduction  of  such 
a  course  of  instruction,  and  to  make  a  few  changes  and  additions. 
As  the  work  is  much  used  in  institutions  for  the  training  of  Teach- 


6  PREFACE. 

ers,  the  following  account  of  the  plan  of  the  whole  course  is  given 
as  a  guide  in  the  use  of  the  lessons,  and  a  help  in  carrying  out  the 
idea.  Those  who  fall  into  a  mechanical  way  of  giving  such  in- 
struction, and  do  not  perceive  the  principle  involved,  completely 
defeat  its  intention,  and  they  had  far  better  keep  to  old  plans  and 
old  books. 

The  work  contains  progressive  series  of  lessons,  the  prevailing 
aim  be"ng  to  exercise  the  faculties  of  children  according  to  their 
natural  order  of  development,  aiming  also  at  their  harmonious 
cultivation.*  The  first  series  chiefly  exercises  the  perceptive 
faculties,  arresting  attention  on  qualities  discoverable  by  the  senses ; 
and  then  furnishing  a  vocabulary  to  clothe  the  ideas,  and  so  fixing 
them  in  the  mind,  where  they  will  be  ready  for  reproduction  when 
the  faculty  of  conception  begins  to  act.  The  second  and  third  se- 
ries, in  addition  to  this,  exercise  the  conceptive  powers  in  recalling 
the  impressions  made  upon  the  senses  by  external  objects,  when 
they  are  removed  from  observation — also  in  leading  from  what  has 
become  known  to  what  is  unknown.  In  the  fourth  series,  the 
children  are  exercised  in  tracing  resemblances  and  differences,  in 
drawing  comparisons  and  recognizing  analogies,  thereby  cultivat- 
ing the  power  of  arranging  and  classifying. 

In  the  fifth  series,  the  reason  and  judgment  are  brought  into 
activity ;  in  tracing  the  connection  between  cause  and  efiect,  be- 
tween use  and  adaptation ;  latfguage  or  the  power  of  expression 
is  cultivated ;  the  ideas  developed  in  the  lessons  of  the  previous 
series  are  expressed  either  in  simple  words  or  short  sentences ; 
but  throughout  this  series  the  pupils  are  required  to  put  down 
all  the  knowledge  they  acquire,  in  the  form  of  consecutive  nar- 
rntive.  This  plan  promotes  fixedness  of  attention  during  the  giv- 
ing of  the  lesson,  a  clear  apprehension  of  facts  and  truths,  and 
facility  in  arranging  and  expressing  what  has  been  acquired. 

*  See  "  Home  Education,"  p.  198. 


PREFACE.  7 

An  objection  has  been  made  to  these  Lessons,  that  thej  put 
fine  words  into  children's  mouths,  and  give  them  an  air  of  ped- 
antry— but  the  evil  in  reality  is  the  effect  of  the  ignorance  that 
has  hitherto  prevailed  as  to  the  properties  of  the  most  common 
things  by  which  we  are  surrounded,  and  the  consequent  poverty 
of  the  poor  man's  language.  When  the  love  of  knowledge  is 
excited,  and  the  habit  of  intelligent  observation  cultivated,  words 
and  phrases  are  required  to  define  accurately  what  so  often  other- 
wise remains  vague  impressions  on  the  mind;  consequently  a 
more  extended  vocabulary  is  requisite,  and  when  no  simple  and 
common  words  can  be  found  to  express  (for  instance,  such  very 
important  and  common  qualities  as  opacity  and  transparency), 
the  only  terms  our  language  affords  must  be  used,  and  the  reproach 
of  pedantry  be  risked. 

Teachers  making  use  of  these  Lessons  are  earnestly  advised  to 
vead  carefully  the  introduction  to  a  series  before  they  commence 
the  lessons  which  it  contains,  and  to  endeavor  to  understand,  and 
then  to  act  np  to  the  principles  and  aim  set  forth.  They  should 
guard  against  mere  mechanical  work,  or  allowing  this  in  their 
pupils;  the  latter,  after  having  heard  a  few  names,  will  often, 
without  thought  or  observation,  apply  them  indiscriminately. 
Neither  should  the  lessons  be  slavishly  followed  in  all  that  is  set 
down  ;  they  should  rather  be  used  as  affording  suggestive  hints ; 
and  variety  should  be  sought  for — the  children  often  themselves 
indicate  what  their  minds  require. 

ELIZABETH  MAYO. 
Eampstead^  July^  1855. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
Hints  on  Sketch  Writing 11 


FIRST  STEP. 

Introductory  RciDark  ^ 20 

Lesson  1.  A  Biskrt,  for  its  parts 25 

2.  A  Ne -dl  •,  fo;'   ts  parts 25 

3.  A  Penknife,  for  its  parts.. .26 

4.  A  Chair,  for  its  ])art.s 27 

6.  A  Watch,  for  its  parts 28 

6.  A  Pig 29 

7.  APe  ,cil 30 

8.  Milk 32 

9.  A  Feather 33 

10.  Loaf  Sugar 36 

11.  Fint 38 

12.  Woo! 39 

13.  A  Piece  of  Bark 40 

14.  A  Rook 41 

15.  A  Pin 42 

16.  A  Cube  of  Wood 42 

17.  A  Thimble 43 

18.  AK.y 43 

19.  ACup 44 

20.  A  Pair  of  Scissors 45 

2L  A  Bird 45 

22.  All  Orange 46 


SECOND  STEP. 

Xntroductory  Remarks 47 

Lc«8on  1.  India  Uu'bcr 47 

2.  A  Piece  of  Sponge 48 

"  3.  Whalebone 49 

4.  A  I^iccoof  Glas.s 51 

6.  A  Piece  of  Slate 62 

6.  Leather 53 

7.  LoafSiigar 56 

8.  A  P  eco  of  Gum  Arabic... 57 

9.  A  Piece  of  Sponge 57 

10.  Wool : 58 

11.  Water 58 

12.  A  Piece  of  Wax 68 

13.  Camphor 69 

14.  Bread 59 


Page 
Lesson  15.  Sealing  Wax GO 

16.  Whalebone 60 

17.  Ginger 61 

18.  Blotting  P;iper 61 

19.  A  Piece  of  Willow 61 

20.  M  Ik 62 

2L  Rce 62 

22.  Sa  t 62 

23.  Horn 03 

24.  Ivo  ry 63 

25.  Oak  Bark 04 

26.  U  cut  Lead  Pencil 64 

27.  A  Wax  Candle 65 

28.  APen 60 


THIRD  STEP. 

Introductory  Remarks 68 

Lesson  1.  Chalk 68 

2.  Coal 70 

3.  A   Match 72 

4.  A  Rose  Leaf 75 

5.  Hoiey  Comb 78 

6.  A  Butterfly 80 

7.  Recapitulaiion 84 

8.  Masi'acre  of   Children  of 

Bethleh<m 88 

9.  AQuill 89 

10.  A  Penny 90 

11.  Mustard  Seed 91 

12.  An  Apple 91 

13.  Glas.^  of  a  Watch 92 

14.  Brown  Sugar 92 

15.  An  Acorn 93 

16.  A  Piece  of  Honey  Comb.. 93 

17.  Refined  Sugar 94 

18.  A  Gwk 95 

19.  Glue 95 

20.  Pack  Thread 96 

21.  Honey 96 

22.  Buttercup. 98 

23.  A  liady  ISird 97 

24.  An  OvHter 98 

26.  A  Fir  Cone 99 

26.  Fur. 100 

27.  ALaurelLeaf 100 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
Lesson  28.  A  Needle 101 

29.  A  Plant  and  a  Stone 102 

30.  ABcll 103 

31.  AWheel 104 

32.  Camphor 106 

33.  Fire 107 

34.  An  Anchor 109 

35.  A  Balance HO 

FOURTH  STEP. 

Introductory  Remarks 113 

LcSriOa  1.  Pt'pper 114 

2.  Niiimeg 115 

3.  Mace.." 117 

4.  Cinuamoii 119 

5.  Ginger 119 

6.  Allspice 120 

7.  A  Clove ..121 

8.  Water 124 

9.  Oil 126 

10.  Beer 127 

11.  Foreign  White  Wine 12S 

12.  Vinegar 129 

13.  Ink 129 

14.  Milk 130 

Hetals. 
General  Obpervat'ovB  on  the  MotalB.132 
General  Coiivcrsatiou  on  the  Metals. 138 
Lesson  15.  Gold 139 

16.  Silver 143 

17.  Quicksilver  or  Mercury.  .145 

18.  Lead 149 

19.  Copper 152 

20.  Iron 156 

21.  Tin 159 

22.  Comparison  of  Metals... 162 

23.  On  Metals  in  General....  163 

Natural  History. 

24.  A  Bee 168 

25.  Honey  Comb 170 

26.  Covering  of  B^rds 173 

27.  Adaptation  of  Feathers 

to  Habits  and  Wants 
of  Birds 176 

28.  Beaks  of  Birds 178 

29.  The  Mole— No.  1 180 

30.  "        "         "    2 182 

31.  On  Pur— No.  1 188 

"    2 189 

32.  The  Pig 191 

33.  Solubility 193 

34.  On  the  Senses 199 

35.  Feeling  or  Touch 201 

36.  Sight 204 

37.  Hearing 205 

38.  Smell 206 

39.  Taste 207 

FIFTH  STEP. 

Introductory  Remarks 208 

1* 


Page 
Lesson  1.  Glass 209 

2.  "      211 

3.  "      213 

4.  Introduction  and  Natu- 

ral   H.siory    of   Silk 
Worm 214 

5.  De.-^crii)Uon  of  Silk  Man- 

ufacture  218 

6.  Descripton    of  various 

fabrics    composed    of 
Silk 221 

Vegetable  King-dom. 

Remark;* 223 

Lesiion  7.  Cork 229 

8.  Canes 231 

9.  Charcoal 232 

Grain  and  Pulse— Observatio.s  on.. 234 
Lesson  10.  Barley  ai;d  Malt 235 

n.  Rye 237 

12.  Oats 239 

13.  Rice 240 

14.  Indian  Corn  or  Maize...  .242 

15.  Wheat... 244 

16.  Pulse 246 

17.  Beans 246 

18.  Peas 248 

Fruits  and  Seeds. 

19.  Forci'in  Currants 249 

20.  The  Cocoanut 250 

21.  Raisins 251 

22.  Figs 252 

Vegetahle  Secretions. 

23.  Camphor 254 

24.  Gum  Arabic 256 

25.  India  Rubber  or  Caout- 

chouc  257 

26.  Gutta  Percha 260 

27.  Oils 262 

28.  RuL'ar 266 

29.  Coffee 269 

30.  Tea 270 

31.  Hops 272 

32.  Sago 273 

83.  Starch 275 

34.  Wafers 276 

35.  Sealing  Wax 277 

36.  Paper 278 

37.  Nutgalls 281 

Insects. 

Observations  on 283 

Lesson  38.  Beeswax 285 

39.  Grasshopper 287 

Shells. 

Observations  on 288 

Le.-^son  40.  Snail.. 291 

41.  Limp't 293 

42.  Periwinkle 293 

43.  Whelk 294 

44.  Shells  of  two^ieccs,  or 

bivalves 296 


10 


CONTENTS. 


Pacre 
LessoD  45.  MiiPcle 297 

46.  Mothor-of- Pearl 298 

Miscellaneous  Objects. 

47.  Bones 299 

48.  Feathers 302 

49.  Glue 306 

60.  Horn 308 

61.  Hort;e  Hair 310 

62.  Ivory 311 

63.  Leather 312 

54.  So-ip 316 

65.  Sponge 318 

66.  T()rtoi^e  Shell 319 

67.  Whaiel.one 321 

68.  Coral 323 

69.  Wax  Candles 325 

60.  Shellac 325 

61.  Butter. 326 

62.  Cheese 327 

63.  Felt 328 

Textile  or  "Woven  Fabrics  and 
their  Materials. 

Lesson  64.  Cotton 331 

65.  Flax 334 

66.  Hemp 336 

67.  Silk 339 

68.  Wool 341 

Minerals. 

Ohf**vaf Ions  on 342 

X-Ha»»u  69.  I>iiiie 346 

70.  Alumine  or  Argil 348 


Pasre 
Lesson  71.  Alum 366 

72.  Emery 352 

73.  Rotten  Stone    ai-d  Tri- 

poli  353 

74.  Pumice  Stone 354 

75.  Slate 355 

S'diciotis  Minerals. 
Lesson  76.  Siind  and  Sandstone 356 

77.  Glass 358 

78.  Mica 364 

79.  Granite 365 

Inflammable  Minerals. 
Lesson  80.  Sulphur 366 

81.  I'umbago 369 

82.  Coal 371 

Saline  Minerals. 

83.  Salt..,.^ 374 

84.  Soda 379 

Manufactured  Articles. 
Lesson  85.  Pc^rcelain 381 

86.  Needles 882 

87.  Nails 385 

88.  Knives 387 

89.  Scissors 389 

»0.  Steel  Pens 390 

91.  Lime  391 

92.  Brags 393 

93.  Puis 394 

94.  Pewter 397 

Glossary 390 


LESSOlSrS    ON    OBJECTS. 


HINTS  ON  SKETCH  WRITING  * 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  practice  better  adapted  to  insure 
effective  oral  teaching,  than  diligent  preparation  of  the  les- 
sons which  the  teacher  intends  to  give  her  pupils.  The 
recent  impulse  imparted  to  popular  education,  while  it  has 
directed  attention  to  this  important  subject,  has  shown, 
also,  how  much  it  has  been  neglected.  This  fact,  with  the 
difficulties  attending  first  attempts  at  the  practice,  renders 
it  desirable  to  furnish  a  few  hints  to  teachers  and  students, 
which  may  help  them  in  this  branch  of  their  work,  and  lead 
to  its  better  appreciation. 

Experience  daily  proves  that  an  unprepared  lesson,  or 
what  may  be  termed  extempore  teaching,  is  sure  to  be 
vague,  diffuse,  and  shallow ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  a 
well-prepared  lesson  is  generally  clear,  to  the  point,  and 
given  with  spirit  and  effect. 

If,  with  all  the  advantages  of  well-disciplined  minds, 
those  who  instruct  adults  find  careful  preparation  indis- 
pensable, far  more   so  must  it  be  to  those  who  have  to 

*  Taken  from  ^^  Notes  and  Sketches  of  Lessons.'" 


12     "    '     ' '  '  '  "^INT^S   ON   SKETCH  WRITING. 

teach  children,  and  who  in  many  cases  are  very  deficient 
in  mental  culture. 

An  accurate  knowledge  of  her  subject  gives  self-posses- 
sion and  composure  to  the  teacher;  enables  her  to  attend 
to  the  effect  of  the  lesson  on  the  minds  of  the  children ; 
prevents  tedious  repetition,  and  important  omissions;  and 
gives  her  such  a  power  over  the  children  as  to  produce  a 
consciousness  that  the  teacher  is  guiding  them,  not  they 
her.  Success  is  then  sure  to  follow,  in  winning  their  atten- 
tion, and  eliciting  their  inquiries  and  remarks.  Moreover, 
the  teacher  who  has  diligently  acquired,  thoroughly  di- 
gested, and  suitably  arranged  her  matter,  will  not  easily 
be  seduced  from  her  subject  by  incidental  association  or 
irrelevant  questioning;  she  readily  detects  the  one,  and 
discourages  the  other. 

Drawing  up  sketches  also  affords  much  salutary  mental 
discipline  to  the  teacher  herself.  She  is  practised  in  ana- 
lyzing subjects  of  instruction ;  and  then,  in  reconstructing 
them  on  the  principles  of  good  teaching.  She  learns  to 
view  the  lesson  as  a  whole,  to  see  the  prominent  bearings 
of  the  subject,  and  to  grasp  and  retain  them  firmly  while 
working  them  out. 

Again :  if  a  teacher  can  overcome  her  natural  love  of 
ease,  and  once  make  up  her  mind  to  the  practice  of  prepar- 
ing sketches  of  lessons,  it  will  not  only  tend  to  cultivate 
and  discipline  her  mind,  but  greatly  contribute  to  the 
pleasure  of  her  daily  occupation,  economizing  at  once  time 
and  labor.  She  will  enjoy  the  interesting  work  of  deter- 
mininijj  the  end  to  be  aimed  at,  of  seeking  the  means  of 
its  attainment,  and  then  of  watching  its  success.     Further; 


HINTS    OX    SKETCH  WEITIXG.  13 

If,  after  having  prepared  the  sketch,  the  teacher  takes  care, 
at  the  close  of  the  day,  to  enter  that  sketch  in  a  hook,  and 
to  notice  the  omissions  made,  and  other  incidents  connected 
with  the  lesson  as  given,  she  will  at  the  end  of  a  single 
twelvemonth  find  her  task  greatly  lightened,  and  her  work 
with  every  new  class  of  children  comparatively  easy.  Her 
pupils  withal,  by  the  help  of  a  systematic  and  regular 
course  of  well  premeditated  and  prepared  instruction,  will 
have  their  minds  properly  exercised,  and  make  solid  prog- 
ress :  the  same  lesson  will  not,  as  is  now  often  the  case, 
be  repeated  within  too  short  a  space  of  time  ;  and  when  it 
is  again  given,  it  will  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  teacher's 
experience  and  correction. 

It  may  seem  very  trite  to  say  that,  in  order  to  prepare 
a  good  sketch  of  a  lesson,  a  teacher  should  thoroughly  ac- 
quaint herself  with  the  subject,  both  in  itself  and  in  its 
different  bearings  on  relative  subjects;  yet  much  vagueness 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  much  inattention  on  the 
part  of  the  children,  are  owing  to  the  neglect  of  a  truth  so 
obvious.  Whatever  may  be  the  skill  of  the  teacher,  with- 
out proper  and  ample  materials,  no  valuable  result  will  be 
produced. 

In  a  Scripture  lesson,  the  meaning  of  the  passage  select- 
ed should  be  carefully  studied  ;  the  parallel  passages  and 
texts  consulted ;  every  reference  to  places,  manners,  cus- 
toms, &c.,  clearly  understood ;  that  the  teacher  may  come 
forward  with  a  mind  enriched  with  knowledge,  an^l  a  heart 
imbued  with  religious  feeling. 

In  secular  instruction,  the  best  information  should  be 
obtained  from  books  and  actual  observation.     The  points 


14  HINTS    ON   SKETCH  WRITING. 

to  which  to  lead  the  pupils  should  be  determined,  whether 
relating  to  historical  facts,  to  utility,  or  to  the  connecting 
dependence  of  one  part  of  the  subject  on  another.  Truth, 
thus  acquired  by  search,  will  be  valued  and  remembered, 
the  harmony  and  dependence  between  various  truths  per- 
ceived, and  its  existence  become  a  reality  to  them. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  teachers  should  be  well 
supplied  with  concordances,  commentaries,  and  other  books 
of  reference.  The  scanty  library  of  many  of  our  teachers, 
•  while  the  mechanic  is  so  well  supplied  with  choice  tools  of 
every  kind,  is  enough  to  make  those  deeply  mourn  who  wish 
well  to  the  cause  of  education. 

The  expenditure  on  this  account  would  be  richly  repaid 
in  the  enhanced  usefulness  of  the  teacher. 

Assuming  that  good  and  sufficient  matter  has  been  col- 
lected, the  next  point  is  to  determine  what  the  special  subject^ 
or  leading  idea^  of  the  lesson  shall  be.  In  order  to  do  this, 
in  a  Scripture  lesson,  for  example,  the  teacher  should  ascer- 
tain the  current  of  thought  that  runs  through  the  passage, 
the  particular  truth  it  teaches,  and  the  practical  application 
of  which  it  is  susceptible.  The  advantages  of  attention  to 
this  rule  in  religious  instructidn,  are  strikingly  expressed  by 
Inglis,  in  the  "  Sabbath  School."  He  says,  "  A  person, 
when  he  has  settled  the  subject  of  his  lesson  in  this  way, 
has  before  his  eyes  a  definite  purpose  to  serve.  Instead  of 
occupying  himself  with  unconnected  explanations,  pious, 
but  pointless  reflections,  and  hap-hazard  questions,  he  tries, 
we  shall  say,  on  that  day  and  by  that  one  lesson,  to  con- 
vince the  children — of  the  value  of  their  souls  ;  or,  of  the 
evils  of  liypocrisy ;  or,  of  tlie  holiness  of  God  ;  or,  of  the 


HINTS    ON    SKETCH  WRITING.  15 

happiness  of  heaven ;  something  at  least  tangible  and  im- 
portant. Instead  of  wandering  at  random  wherever  the 
impulse  of  association  or  the  answers  of  the  children  may 
lead  him,  his  subject  is  a  helm  to  his  thoughts,  and  guides 
them  steadily  to  the  point.  He  tries  to  lodge  one  or  two 
great  truths  in  the  minds  of  his  scholars  ;  and  this  distinct- 
ness of  purpose  gives  method  and  clearness  to  every  part 
of  the  lesson.  Both  teacher  and  scholars  know  where  they 
are,  and  what  they  are  about." 

In  preparing  the  sketch  of  a  lesson  on  a  secular  subject, 
the  teacher  should  in  like  manner,  so  far  as  is  practicable, 
confine  herself  to  a  single  point, — or  at  most,  a  few  points, 
toward  which  the  whole  instruction  should  tend,  as  rays 
to  a  centre.  Her  attention  should  not  be  directed  to  what 
she  can  or  might  say  on  the  subject,  but  to  supply  what  is 
most  suited  to  the  children's  minds  and  acquirements,  to 
their  present  and  future  wants ;  and  what  they  can  well 
receive  and  digest. 

The  plan^  or  method  of  the  lesson,  is  another  very  im- 
portant consideration.  The  information  which  the  teacher 
has  collected  is  placed  in  her  own  mind  in  the  order  in 
which  she  has  acquired  it,  and  not  in  that  in  which  it 
should  be  imparted  to  the  children.  She  has,  therefore,  tc 
endeavor  to  throw  herself  into  the  minds  of  her  pupils  ;  to 
realize  to  herself  their  actual  state,  and  to  consider  what  is 
known,  that  she  may  obtain  a  firm  footing  from  whence  to 
proceed  to  that  which  is  unknown  and  new.  She  has  also 
to  analyze  her  subject,  that  she  may  commence  with  what 
is  simple  and  elementary,  and  so  to  arrange  her  points  that 
she  may  proceed,  by  a  series  of  well-graduated  steps,  to 


16  HINTS    ON   SKETCH  WRITING. 

that  which  is  more  diftlcult,  or  is  complex  in  its  character. 
The  ideas  presented  or  gathered  from  the  subject  will  then 
be  received  in  their  right  order,  their  suitable  connection 
felt,  and  the  whole  will  be  adjusted  satisfactorily  in  the 
mind.  She  has,  moreover,  to  determine  how  she  should 
present  her  subject  so  as  to  seize  that  point  of  view  which 
is  most  suitable,  and  likely  to  excite  the  greatest  degree  of 
interest  and  healthy  exercise  in  her  class, — varying  this,  in 
^different  sketches,  that  she  may  not  continue  in  a  hackneyed 
course,  or  put  the  children's  minds  in  trammels.  Teachers 
are  very  apt  to  adopt  some  model  in  their  teaching,  and  to 
wear  it  threadbare.  They,  in  consequence,  lose  freedom  of 
mind  themselves,  and  their  pupils  become  weary  of  travel- 
ling always  by  the  same  road.  It  is  better  to  make  a  few 
.xiistakes  (by  which,  indeed,  they  gain  experience),  than 
lose  their  energy  and  independence  of  thought. 

In  drawing  out  the  heads,  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
a  proportionate  degree  of  attention  be  paid  to  each,  that 
too  much  be  not  given  to  the  subordinate,  while  the  pnn- 
cipal  are  left  indefinite  and  incomplete.  Care  should  also 
be  taken  that  the  heads  are  not  too  numerous:  minute 
divisions  impoverish  the  subject,  and  diminish  its  effect. 
They  should  also  be  marked  by  clear,  distinct,  and  broad 
lines.  Teachers  who  endeavor  to  take  a  comprehensive 
view  of  their  subject,  will  succeed  far  better  than  those 
who  bring  to  it  a  critical,  fanciful  spirit. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  a  sketch  designed  simply  for  the  teach- 
er's use,  and  one  written  for  the  inspection  of  others ;  the 
object  of  the  one  is  simply  to  suggest,  that  of  the  other  to 


HINTS    ON   SKETCH   WRITING.  11 

inform.  In  general,  the  former  contains  only  the  memoranda 
of  what  the  teacher  intends  to  bring  before  the  children,  in 
the  order  it  is  to  be  given ;  while  the  latter  should  contain 
more  or  less  of  the  teacher's  method  of  giving  the  lesson, 
and  greater  fulness  of  information. 

To  a  teacher  of  long  experience,  who  has  in  her  owti 
mind  a  well-acquired  method,  memoranda  may  be  sufficicut ; 
still,  method  must  be  attended  to  in  preparation,  though  it 
may  not  be  essential  to  exhibit  it  in  notes  for  her  own  use. 
She  should  not  only  know  that  a  lesson  requires  reasoning, 
description,  illustration,  and  application,  but  her  own  mind 
should  be  made  up  as  to  how  a  point  is  to  be  reasoned  out, 
described,  illustrated,  or  applied.  The  character  of  the 
matter  is  important,  and  the  arrangement  of  it  necessary ; 
but  the  method  of  presenting  it  to  the  children  is  as  impor- 
tant as  either ;  for,  as  the  late  Dr.  Mayo  has  well  said,  "  it 
is  as  important  how  children  learn,  as  what  they  learn." 
But  for  students  in  a  training  school,  who  prepare  sketches 
for  their  own  improvement  and  the  inspection  of  others 
(and  it  is  to  this  class  that  these  hints  may  be  considered 
more  immediately  applicable),  it  is  requisite  to  state  in  the 
sketch  the  method  as  well  as  the  matter  of  the  lesson.  In' 
formation  may  be  nicely  put  together,  but  more  is  needed 
to  insure  a  good  lesson — the  manner  in  which  children's 
minds  are  to  be  exercised  upon  it ;  this  should,  therefore, 
be  stated  in  the  sketch.  It  is  easy  enough  to  collect  infor- 
mation from  books,  but  not  so  easy  to  show  how  such 
information  is  to  be  used  as  a  means  of  developing  the 
minds  of  the  pupils ;  and  this  is  what  ought  to  be  done  by 
a  good  teacher. 


18  HINTS   ON  SKETCH   WRITING. 

Method  and  order  should  by  no  means  be  confounded ; 
—-order  has  to  do  with  the  arrangement  of  the  mformation, 
the  raw  material,  as  it  were,  of  the  lesson  ;  method,  with 
the  moulding  and  fashioning  which  it  undergoes  in  the 
hands  of  the  teacher,  constituting  the  manner  in  which  it 
should  be  presented  to  the  children,  so  as  to  exercise  their 
mental  powers  at  the  right  time,  and  in  due  proportion. 
Order  deals,  as  we  have  seen,  with  the  information — the 
subject  matter  of  the  lesson  ;  method,  with  the  mind,  the 
development  and  furnishing  of  which  is  the  object  of  the 
instruction.  Thus,  order  is  more  concerned  with  the  in- 
strument used ;  method,  with  the  end  to  be  attained.  And 
while  order  is  method  to  a  certain  extent,  method  includes 
more  than  mere  order. 

In  addition,  therefore,  to  information  and  order,  a  stu- 
dent's sketch  should  show  how  it  is  proposed  to  introduce 
what  is  general  and  abstract ;  to  help  to  the  conception  of 
what  is  absent ;  to  illustrate  what  is  not  understood ;  to  re- 
solve the  complex  into  its  simple  elements  ;  and  to  fix  in  the 
memory  that  which  is  received  by  the  understanding.  In 
fine,  the  sketch  should  contain  the  skeleton,  or  outline,  of 
the  lesson,  showing  the  prineipal  points  on  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  exercise  the  children's  attention,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  subject  should  be  treated,  so  as  to  secure  their 
interest,  and  fix  the  ideas  clearly  and  thoroughly  in  their 
minds. 

A  teacher,  in  the  selection  of  her  subject,  may  have  a 
general  aim ;  thus,  in  a  Bible  lesson,  to  produce  a  religious 
impression ;  in  a  lesson  on  an  object,  to  call  out  observation ; 
in  a  lesson  on  number,  to  cultivate  accuracy  and  draw  forth 


HINTS   ON   SKETCH   WEITING.  19 

power  ;  in  a  lesson  on  an  animal,  to  exhibit  the  wisdom  and 
goodness  displayed  in  its  structure,  and  thus  to  draw  forth 
admiration  and  love  toward  the  Divine  Creator.  But,  in 
the  treatment  of  the  particular  lesson,  there  should,  we 
repeat,  be  one,  or  at  most  two  or  three  prominent  points 
put  down  in  the  sketch,  which  should  be  natural,  simple, 
and  striking ;  it  should  be  the  special  aim  of  the  teacher  to 
w^ork  them  out.  The  sketch  should  declare  the  plan  by 
which  the  children  are  to  be  conducted  to  these  points : 
thus,  in  a  lesson  on  an  object,  it  should  show  how  any  par- 
ticular idea  is  to  be  developed,  or  how  the  children  are  to 
be  led  to  discover  the  fitness  of  the  object  for  its  use  ;  in  a 
lesson  in  natural  history,  how  an  animal's  organization  is 
adapted  to  its  habits  ;  on  number,  by  what  steps  the  chil- 
dren are  to  be  induced  to  draw  conclusions  for  themselves; 
in  a  Bible  lesson,  how  it  is  purposed  to  produce  an  impres- 
sion, and  to  bring  a  truth  or  precept  within  the  sphere  of 
the  children's  perception  and  self-application. 

With  respect  to  the  details  of  information,  a  sketch, 
whether  drawn  up  by  a  teacher  for  her  own  use  in  the 
school,  or  by  a  student  in  training,*  should  contain  what 
may  be  called  suggestive  hints  of  the  subject  of  the  lesson. 
It  should  equally  avoid  detailed  information,  on  the  one 
hand ;  and  on  the  other,  mere  general  notices,  such  as  con- 
stitute a  table  of  contents,  or  heading  of  a  chapter.  In  the 
former  case  the  document  would  present  the  appearance  of 
a  depository  of  information,  rather  than  a  sketch  ;  and  the 

*  For  examples  of  these  two  kinds  of  sketches,  or  rather  of  memo- 
randa and  sketch,  see  the  memoranda  and  the  sketch  for  lessons  on  th« 
Mole,  p.        ,  Fourth  Step. 


20  Hi]!n:s  on  sketch  WRirrNa 

teacher  would  herself  be  in  danger  of  presenting  it  in  a 
book  form, — of  becoming  a  lecturer  instead  of  a  teacher ; 
while  a  sketch,  if  of  too  general  a  character,  would  either 
do  injustice  to  the  knowledge  of  the  teacher,  or  produce  a 
vague  and  superficial  lesson. 

The  general  style  of  a  sketch  should  be  pithy,  pointed, 
and  condensed,  in  order  that  its  different  parts  may  catch 
the  eye.  To  effect  this,  the  use  of  the  ellipsis  will  con- 
tribute. Questions  may  also  often  be  used  in  a  sketch  with 
effect ;  they  aid  in  giving  point  and  expression,  and  indicate 
method  in  the  very  shortest  way.  But  it  requires  considei*- 
able  judgment  and  experience  to  frame  questions  properly 
for  such  a  purpose,  and  with  due  regard  to  the  character 
of  a  sketch,  avoiding,  on  the  one  hand,  the  minuteness  re- 
quired in  a  lesson,  and  on  the  other,  the  generality  of  mere 
heads.  The  following  example  is  faulty,  inasmuch  as  the 
questions  change  by  their  directness  and  specialty  the  char- 
acter of  a  sketch  ;  while  from  their  paucity  they  fail  as  to 
a  lesson : — "  I  will  question  the  children  on  the  most  im- 
portant points  in  the  -narrative  as  I  proceed  ;  as,  whom 
Abraham  sent  to  fetch  Rebecca?  at  what  place  the  servant 
stopped?  who  came  to  the  well  while  he  was  there  ?  how 
did  Rebecca  treat  him  ?  what  disposition  did  she  manifest?" 
Compare  this  with  the  following  extract  from  a  sketch  on 
"  the  Goodness  of  God,  shown  in  the  different  Seasons  of 
the  Year  : " — "  Draw  from  the  children  a  descnption  of 
this  season  (winter).  What  do  they  observe  out  of  doors  ? 
trees  without  leaves,  gardens  without  flowers,  frost,  snow, 
wind,  fogs,  cloudj,  &c.  How  do  they  feel  ?  What  do  they 
lik«  to  have  on  ?    What  difference  do  they  find  indoors  ?— • 


HINTS    ON   SKETCH    WRITING.  21 

fires  required,  windows  shut,  &c."  Here  questions  are 
used  to  elicit  what  may  be  called  classes  of  answers^  to 
form  connecting  links,  and  also  to  indicate  the  method  of 
the  teacher ;  not  one  of  them  is  of  that  isolated  or  detailed 
character  which  marks  each  question  in  the  first  extract. 

The  title  of  the  lesson  should  always  be  stated  in  a  clear, 
bold  hand,  at  the  top  of  the  sketch  ;  next,  the  class  of  chil- 
dren for  whom  it  is  prepared,  as  this  information  is  neces- 
sary to  the  determining  the  suitability  in  the  mode  of 
treating  the  subject;  then,  the  point  of  view,  or  the  ideas 
to  be  developed  :  but  when  the  point  is  contained  in. the 
title  of  the  lesson,  as  in  a  lesson  on  grammar  or  number,  it 
should  not  be  repeated.  It  also  gives  great  neatness  to  a 
sketch  to  mark  the  heads  in  Roman  numerals,  and  the  sub- 
divisions in  the  Arabic.  A  margin  should  be  left,  and  the 
heads  or  leading  ideas  stated  therein  ;  this,  besides  improv- 
ing the  appearance  of  the  sketch,  enables  both  the  teacher 
and  others  to  see  at  a  glance  the  matter  and  order  of  the 
lesson.  A  legible  handwriting  and  neatness  of  execution 
should  by  no  means  be  neglected  in  a  sketch.  These  minor 
points  may  appear  trivial,  but  they  are  not  unimportant ; 
attention  to  them  will  promote  self-possession  when  giving 
the  lesson,  and  tend  to  form  beneficial  habits. 


FIKST     STEP. 

INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS  FOR  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE 
TEACHER. 

To  lead  children  to  observe  with  attention  the  objects 
which  surround  them,  and  then  to  describe  with  accuracy 
the  impressions  they  convey,  appears  to  be  the  first  step  in 
the  business  of  education. 

As  the  period  of  childhood  is  characterized  by  the  cease- 
less activity  of  the  perceptive  faculties,  it  is  clear  that  with 
them  intellectual  education  should  commence.  The  devel- 
opment of  these  powers  gives  animation  to  the  dull,  and 
precision  to  the  lively,  while  it  promotes  that  clearness  of 
apprehension  which  is  the  solid  basis  of  after  attainment, 
and  without  which  our  judgments  are  unsound,  and  our 
reasonings  inconclusive.  As  the  sphere  of  observation  is 
enlarged,  and  the  pages  of  history  or  the  fields  of  science 
are  explored,  the  mind,  accustomed  to  accurate  investiga- 
tion, will  not  rest  content  with  less  than  satisfactory  evi- 
dence, either  in  morals  or  in  science. 

The  present  work  consists  of  five  series  of  lessons,  each 
of  which  increases  in  difiiculty  as  the  pupil  advances.  The 
order  observed  in  them  is  the  result  of  some  experience, 


INTEODUCTORY   REMARKS.  23 

and  of  several  trials,  which  have  produced  a  strong  convic- 
tion of  the  importance  and  value  of  a  methodical  arrange- 
ment, and  of  a  very  gradual  progression.  It  is  therefore 
recommended  that  no  step  iu  the  course  should  be  alto- 
gether omitted,  though  the  age  and  talents  of  the  children 
must  regulate  the  time  bestowed  on  each. 

It  is  very  important,  that  in  all  instruction,  some  definite 
object  should  be  proposed,  and  that  every  step  should  have 
a  tendency  toward  the  end  in  view.  Thus  in  the  series 
under  consideration,  the  development  of  the  perceptive 
faculties  is  aimed  at,  and  each  sense  is  called  into  action, 
that  all  may  be  strengthened  by  exercise,  and  their  judg- 
ments corrected.  By  linking  also  the  ideas  gained  to  ap- 
propriate words,  a  ready  command  of  language  may  be 
acquired. 

A  few  lessons  fully  drawn  out  are  given  in  each  step,  as 
a  specimen  of  the  manner  in  w^hich  the  others  should  be 
given.  It  would  have  extended  the  volume  to  an  unneces- 
sary length,  and  filled  it  with  needless  repetitions,  had  each 
been  made  out  with  equal  minuteness.  Information  is  not 
given  in  the  preliminary  set,  as  the  end  proposed  is  to  ex- 
cite the  mental  powers  of  the  children  to  activity,  and  not 
to  furnish  them  with  knowledge. 

It  may  perhaps  be  necessary  to  guard  against  the  error 
of  expecting,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  anything  more 
than  hints  as  to  the  mode  of  arranging  and  imparting 
knowledge.  Teachers  ought  to  be  well  informed,  in  order 
to  meet  the  inquiries  which  the  active  minds  of  children 
continually  suggest.  Their  questions  will  generally  point 
out  the  best  mode  of  treating  a  subject,  or  of  leading  them 


24  FIRST   STEP. 

to  the  discovery  of  any  truth.  Precise,  unvarying  rules  may 
be  laid  down  for  mechanical  operations ;  but  mind  alone  can 
act  upon  mind,  and  bring  it  into  vigorous  exercise  ;  and  all 
instruction  must  be  dry  and  uninteresting,  which  has  not 
undergone  some  modification  from  the  person  by  whom  it 
is  communicated. 

There  are  several  faults  into  which  teachers  are  likely 
to  fall ;  one  is  that  of  telling  too  much,  for  though  the  in- 
formation may  be  received  with  pleasure,  and  appear  to 
profit,  yet  under  such  a  mode  of  instruction,  the  pupils' 
minds  remain  almost  passive,  and  they  acquire  a  habit  of 
receiving  impressions  from  others,  at  a  time  when  they 
ought  to  be  gaining  mental  power  by  the  exertion  of  their 
own  faculties.  Another  mistake  is  that  of  giving  a  term 
before  the  pupil  has  felt  his  want  of  it.*  When  the  idea 
of  any  quality  has  been  formed  in  his  mind,  Avithout  his 
being  able  to  express  it,  the  name  given  under  such  circum- 
stances fixes  it  on  the  memory  :  thus,  when  a  child  observes 
that  whalebone,  after  having  been  bent,  returns  to  its  orig- 
inal position,  he  may  be  told  that  this  property  which  he 
has  discovered  is  called  elastic. 

In  the  First  Step  the  children  are  led  to  discern  and 
name  the  several  parts  of  an  object,  as  also  to  the  distinct 
perception  of  some  of  the  more  obvious  qualities,  without 

*  The  writer  desires  particularly  to  enforce  this  remark,  having  in  on* 
or  two  instances  seen  the  lessons  altogether  misused.  Thus  the  qualities 
were  told,  and  the  explanation  of  the  terms  given,  instead  of  the  object 
being  presented  to  the  children  that  they  might  make  their  own  observa- 
tions upon  it,  and  learn  from  the  teacher  how  to  express  qualities  uleaily 
discerned  by  them,  although  unknown  by  uam«. 


A   BASKET,  FOR   ITS   PARTS.  25 

the  communication  of  a  term  by  which  to  express  such  per- 
ception, except  in  those  cases  where  the  term  is  famihar. 

LESSON   I. 

A   BASKET,    FOR   ITS   PARTS. 

Require  the  children  to  name  the  object,  and  to  tell  its 
use — as  to  hold  potatoes,  peas,  bread,  tea,  sugar,  books, 
work,  paper,  &c. ;  and  then  to  point  out  its  parts,  as  the  lid, 
the  handles,  the  sides,  the  bottom,  the  inside,  the  outside, 
and  the  edges ;  to  describe  the  use  of  the  lid — to  cover  the 
things  contained  in  the  basket,  and  to  prevent  them  being 
seen  ;  and  to  tell  also  the  use  of  the  sides  and  of  the  bot- 
tom. What  would  happen  if  the  basket  had  no  lid  ?  The 
things  it  contained  would  be  seen,  and  the  dust  would  get 
in.  "What  would  happen  if  it  had  no  handle  ?  It  could  not 
be  conveniently  held.  Show  me  how  you  would  be  obliged 
to  hold  it  if  it  had  no  handle.  Would  you  like  to  have  to 
hold  it  in  that  way  ?  What  would  happen  if  there  were  no 
sides  to  the  basket  ?  The  thhigs  it  contained  would  fall 
out  sidewise.  What  would  happen  if  there  were  no  bottom 
to  the  basket  ?  They  would  fall  downward,  nor  would  the 
basket  stand  safely.  Then  make  the  children  repeat  to- 
gether the  names  of  the  various  parts  of  a  basket.  "  The 
basket  has  a  lid,  a  handle,"  &c. 

LESSON  IL 

A   NEEDLE,    FOR   ITS   PARTS. 

The  children  to  give  the  name,  and  tell  how  the  nee- 
"ile  is  used :    What  persons  use  needles  ?     What  men  use 


26  FIBST  STEP. — ^LESSON   III. 

them?  Desire  a  child  to  touch  some  part  of  the  needW; 
ask  the  name  of  that  part  of  it,  and  let  all  repeat  the  word 
together.  When  all  the  parts  have  been  discovered,  the 
children  repeat  together — "  A  needle  has  an  eye,  a  point, 
and  a  shank."  Question  them  as  to  where  the  eye  is, 
where  the  point,  and  where  the  shank.  All  repeat :  "  The 
eye  is  at  one  end  of  the  needle,  the  point  is  at  the  other 
end  of  it,  and  the  shank  is  between  the  eye  and  the  poinf 
Ask  the  use  of  the  eye,  and  what  is  put  through  it.  Thread, 
cotton,  silk,  or  worsted.  What  is  the  act  of  putting  any 
one  of  these  through  the  eye  of  the  needle  called  ?  What 
is  the  use  of  the  point  ?  what  should  the  point  be  ?  When 
is  a  needle  a  bad  one  ?  When  the  point  is  blunt.  What 
is  the  use  of  the  shank  ?  It  gives  a  part  by  which  to  hold 
the  needle,  and  also  to  hold  the  stitches  we  take  up. 
Conclude  by  simultaneous  recapitulation  of  the  parts  of  a 
needle :  "  A  needle  has,"  &c. 

LESSON  IIL 

A  PENKNIFE,  FOR  ITS   PARTS. 

The  teacher  calls  upon  the^children  to  name  the  object, 
and  then  desires  a  child  to  point  to  some  part  of  the  knife ; 
supposing  this  to  be  the  blade,  the  children  should  learn  the 
name ;  if  they  do  not  know  it,  the  letter  B  is  then  written 
on  the  slate,  and  the  children  taught  to  understand  that  B 
stands  for  the  word  blade ;  then  they  should  be  required 
to  point  to  the  other  parts  of  the  knife,  as  the  handle,  the 
rivets,  &c.,  and  to  tell  their  names,  or  to  learn  them  if 
they  do  not  know  them;    repeating  the  names  of  the 


A   CHAIR,    FOE   ITS   PARTS.  27 

several  parts  of  the  knife,  as  indicated  by  the  letters  on 
the  slate. 

The  teacher  is  next  to  touch  the  different  parts  of  the 
knife,  and  as  this  is  done  to  require  the  children  to  give  the 
name  of  each  part,  as  the  edge  of  the  blade,  the  point,  the 
handle,  the  rivets,  the  hinge,  &c. 

Holdmg  up  the  knife,  the  teacher  then  asks  the  children 
how  the  blade  is  placed  with  respect  to  the  handle  ?  whether 
it  is  always  in  the  same  position  ?  how  it  is  placed  when  the 
knife  is  used  ?  and  how  when  it  is  put  into  the  pocket  ? 
where  the  point  is  ?  and  where  the  rivets,  &c.  ?  how  many 
parts  has  the  knife  ?  the  children  now  to  refer  to  the  slate, 
and  to  mention,  as  they  count  the  number,  what  each  let- 
ter stands  for.  The  use  of  the  knife  might  be  here  spoken 
of,  and  when  a  penknife  is  used  in  preference  to  any  other 
knife ;  have  they  ever  seen  any  person  make  a  pen  with 
such  a  knife  as  that  before  them  ? 

The  object  is  now  to  be  withdrawn,  and  the  teacher  is 
to  desire  the  children  to  name  the  parts  of  it  from  memory, 
one  child  only  being  at  first  allowed  to  speak,  and  then  all : 
"  The  knife  has  a  blade, — ^the  knife  has  a  handle,"  &c.  If 
they  mistake,  the  board  is  to  be  referred  to,  and  the  teacher 
is  to  question  them  as  to  what  each  letter  stands  for.  They 
might  also  describe  the  position  of  the  parts,  first  one  of 
them  doing  so,  and  then,  simultaneously,  all. 

LESSON  IV. 

A  CHAIR,  FOR   ITS   PARTS. 

The  children  to  name  the  object,  then  to  tell  its  use, — - 
to  sit  on ;  then  to  point  out  its  parts,  as  the  back,  the  seat, 


28  FIRST   STEP. — ^LESSON   IV. 

the  legs,  and  the  bars ;  then  to  tell  the  use  of  the  several 
parts,  as  the  back,  for  the  sitter  to  lean  against ;  of  the  seat, 
for  him  to  sit  on  ;  of  the  legs,  to  support  the  chair ;  of  the 
cross-bars,  to  give  strength  and  firmness  to  the  whole. 
What  would  be  the  consequence  had  the  chair  no  back  ? 
"We  could  not  so  well  rest  on  it  when  tired.  Of  its  having 
no  seat  ?  There  would  be  nothing  to  sit  upon.  Of  its 
having  no  legs?  The  seat  would  be  on  the  floor.  What 
would  happen  were  there  no  bars  ?  The  chair  would  soon 
fall  to  pieces.  Of  which  of  the  parts  is  there  one  only  ? 
Of  the  seat  and  of  the  back.  How  many  legs  are  there  ? 
Why  four  legs  ?  How  many  bars  are  there  ?  Which  parts 
are  upright?  Which  parts  are  level?  Repeat  together 
the  names  of  the  several  parts  of  a  chair. 

LESSON  V. 

A  WATCH,  FOE  ITS  PAETS. 

The  teacher,  holding  up  a  watch,  asks.  What  is  this  ? 
It  is  a  watch.  Now  look  well  at  it,  and  tell  me  the  name 
of  some  part  of  it.  The  hands.  Yes.  Tell  me  another 
part.  The  glass.  All  repeat, — "  The  watch  has  hands  and 
it  has  a  glass."  Find  another  part.  The  rim.  Is  there 
any  part  of  the  watch  which  you  cannot  see  when  I  hold  it 
up  ?  Yes,  the  inside.  If  you  will  think  a  little  you  will  be 
able  to  tell  me  some  other  part.  The  outside.  All  repeat, 
"  The  watch  has  an  outside  and  an  inside."  You  have  told 
me  the  watch  has  hands ;  where  do  they  meet  ?  In  the 
middle.  In  the  middle  of  what  ?  In  the  middle  of  the 
fece.    In  telling  me  this  you  have  mentioned  two  other 


THE  PIG.  29 

parts  of  the  watch.  The  watch  has  a  face,  and  there  is  a 
small  hole  in  the  middle  of  it.  Now  tell  me  how  many 
hands  the  watch  has  ?  Two.  Are  they  alike  ?  No.  How 
are  they  unlike  ?  One  of  them  is  long,  the  other  is  short. 
Say,  "  The  watch  has  two  hands,  one  of  them  long  and  the 
other  short."  Can  you  find  out  anything  more  about  the 
face  ?  There  are  little  figures  round  the  edge  of  it.  Re- 
peat together,  "  The  face  has  figures  round  it."  Tell  me 
some  other  part  which  you  have  named?  The  glass.  How 
many  glasses  has  the  watch  ?  Only  one.  And  what  does 
th  glass  cover?  It  covers  the  face.  Say,  "The  watch 
has  a  glass,  which  covers  the  face." 

Well,  now  you  have  been  looking  at  the  watch,  and 
have  told  me  several  parts  of  it  which  you  have  found  out 
by  looking  at  it,  who  among  you  can  tell  me  when  a  watch 
is  near,  even  if  it  be  not  in  sight  ?  I  can.  It  ticks.  What 
is  the  use  of  a  watch  ?  It  tells  us  what  time  it  is.  Yes, 
and  there  is  something  else  which  tells  the  time  ;  what  is 
it  ?    A  clock.     Now  let  us  sing  about  the  clock : 

"The  neat  little  clock,  in  the  comer  it  stands." 


LESSON  VI. 

THE   PIG. 

I.  Show  the  children  the  picture  of  a  pig.  Let  them 
name  and  point  to  all  its  parts  ;  as  the  head,  eyes,  ears,  nose, 
mouth,  neck,  legs,  tail,  &c.  Tell  them  that  the  nose  and 
mouth  together  are  called  the  snout.  Ask  whether  they 
have  seen  a  pig.     If  like  the  one  before  them.     The  differ- 


80  FIRST  STEP. — ^LESSON   VII. 

ence.  What  they  have  seen  pigs  doing?  Their  color, 
shape,  &c.  Where  pigs  Uve  ?  If  they  have  ever  seen  a 
sty  ?  What  they  eat  out  of?  &c.,  &c.  Thus  leading  them 
to  talk  familiarly  and  to  say  all  they  can  about  pigs. 

II.  Speak  of  the  use  of  the  pig  to  man.  What  it's  flesh 
is  called  ?     If  tcey  have  ever  tasted  it  ? 

III.  Who  made  ihe  pig  ?  How  we  should  feel  toward 
God,  who  has  given  at>  tliis  useful  animal.  How  it  should 
be  treated ;  givmg  some  examples  which  have  come  under 
their  notice  of  cruelty  to  the  pig ;  appealing  to  the  children 
if  this  conduct  is  right,  or  pleasing  to  God.  How  God 
would  regard  such  children.  How  all  animals  which  God 
has  made  should  be  treated,  and  if  they  would  like  to  be 
treated  cruelly  themselves.  By  these  and  similar  questions 
exciting  humane  feelings  toward  animals. 

LESSON  VII. 

A  PENCIL,  TO   DEVELOP  THE   IDEA   OP  ITS   PARTS   AND 
THEIR  USES. 

The  children  repeat  together :  This  is  a  pencil.  Who 
can  tell  the  use  of  a  pencil  ?  -  It  is  used  for  writing.  What 
do  you  mean  by  writing  ?  Look  at  me.  The  teacher 
makes  some  unmeaning  marks  on  paper,  and  asks :  Is  this 
writing?  No.  The  teacher  next  forms  some  letters  or 
words,  on  the  board,  and  asks :  Is  this  writing  ?  Yes,  it  is. 
Now  you  can  tell  me  when  we  wHte  with  a  pencil  When 
we  use  it  to  make  words.  Do  any  of  you  know  any  other 
iise  of  a  pencil  ?     Some  child  will  perhaps  say :  It  is  used 


A  PENCIL.  31 

to  draw  with.  Repeat  together:  '^ A  pencil  is  used  to 
write  with  and  to  draw  with.'''*  If  you  wished  to  write  or 
draw,  could  you  do  so  if  you  had  a  pencil  alone,  and 
nothing  more?  No.  Right;  you  must  have  paper,  or 
Bomethmg  to  write  or  draw  upon.  Now  look  well  at  the 
pencil,  and  tell  me  if  it  is  everywhere  alike,  as  this  piece 
of  chalk  is?  What  can  any  of  you  see?  The  wood  of 
the  pencil.  What  more  ?  The  lead  of  it.  The  wood  is 
not  then  the  whole  of  the  pencil  ?  what  is  it  ?  It  is  a  part 
of  it.  And  what  is  the  lead  ?  The  lead  is  also  a  part  of 
the  pencil.  What  can  you  say  the  pencil  has?  The 
pencil  has  parts.  Try  and  find  some  other  parts.  Call 
a  child  to  touch  some  part  of  the  pencil ;  he  will  most 
likely  touch  the  ends ;  the  children  may  not  know  how 
to  call  them  ;  they  may  be  told  they  are  the  ends  of  the 
pencil,  and  then  repeat  together:  The  pencil  has  ends. 
How  many  ends  has  a  pencil?  Two.  Before  any  one 
can  use  the  pencil  for  writing,  what  must  be  done  to 
one  of  the  ends?  It  must  be  cut.  What  do  we  form 
when  we  cut  it?  We  form  a  point.  What  more  do 
you  see  on  the  pencil?  Some  words.  That  is  the 
maker's  name.  Now  repeat  together  the  parts  a  pen- 
cil has.  A  pencil  has  wood,  &c.  What  is  the  use  of 
the  lead?  What  would  be  the  consequence  if  there 
were  no  lead  in  the  pencil?  What  is  the  use  of  the 
wood  ?  What  do  you  think  would  be  the  consequence 
if  the  pencil  were  all  lead?  Yes;  one  disadvantage 
would  be  that  it  would  blacken  our  fingers.  Now  tell 
me  where  the  lead  is.  Repeat  together:  "  The  lead 
runs    along    the    middle    of    the   pencil."      Where     is 


32  FIRST   STEP. — LESSON    VIII. 

the  wood  ?  Repeat  together :  "  The  wood  is  round  tht 
lead:''  Where  is  the  point  ?  Repeat  together :  "  The 
point  is  at  one  end  of  tJie  penciV* 


LESSON  VIII. 

MILK. 

What  is  this  in  the  glass  ?  Milk.  Where  do  we  get 
milk  ?  It  comes  from  the  cow.  How  can  you  tell  that  this 
is  milk  and  not  water  ?  By  its  being  white.  Is  there  any 
other  reason  for  your  saying  that  it  is  not  water  ?  We 
cannot  see  through  it.  Repeat  together  :  "  Milk  is  white, 
and  we  cannot  see  through  it?"*  Taste  it.  It  is  very  nice. 
What  kind  of  taste  has  it  ?  It  has  a  sweet  taste.  Repeat : 
"  Milk  has  a  nice  sweet  taste.^^  You  have  told  rae  in  what 
it  is  unlike  water,  now  find  out  something  in  which  it  is 
like  water  ;  now  look  at  rae  (the  teacher  pours  out  a  little 
of  the  milk  in  drops) ;  it  will  wet  anything ;  it  forms  itself 
in  drops.  We  call  those  things  which  make  others  wet,  and 
form  themselves  into  drops,  liquids.  What  then  is  milk? 
Milk  is  a  liquid.  Tell  me  some  other  liquids.  Water,  beer, 
ifec.  What  use  do  we  make  of  milk  ?  We  drink  it.  Why 
are  little  children  fed  upon  milk  ?  To  make  them  grow. 
Yes;  and  because  it  makes  them  grow  it  is  said  to  be 
nourishing.  Tell  me  some  other  things  that  are  nour- 
ishing. 

Do  you  know  any  other  animal  besides  the  cow  that 
gives  milk  ?  Yes,  the  ass  and  the  goat.  I  think  you  can 
bU  tell  me  why  God  gave  animals  milk.    Yes,  Ho  gives  it 


A   FEATHER.  33 

to  them  to  be  food  for  their  young.  Why  is  milk  so  suit- 
able for  the  food  of  young  animals  ?  Because  it  is  so  nour- 
ishing. How  kind  it  is  in  God  to  give  animals  such  nice 
nourishing  food  for  their  young,  to  keep  the  little  things 
alive  till  they  have  teeth  to  bite  the  grass  !  What  is  the 
young  of  the  cow  called  ?  A  calf  Now  repeat  all  you 
know  about  milk.  "  MilTc  comes  from  the  cow.  God  gives 
it  to  the  cow  to  feed  the  young  calf  when  it  has  not  teeth 
to  bite  the  grass.  Milk  is  white^  and  we  cannot  see  through 
it  y  it  tastes  nice  and  sweet  y  it  is  a  liquid^  and  snakes  very 
nourishing  food, 

LESSON    IX. 

A   FEATHER. 

What  is  this  ?  A  feather.  Whence  does  it  come  ?  It 
comes  from  off  a  bird.  How  do  you  think  a  bird  would 
feel  without  its  feathers?  Very  cold.  Of  what  use  then 
are  feathers  to  birds  ?  They  keep  them  warm.  What  do 
we  wear  to  keep  us  warm  ?  Coats,  frocks,  aprons,  &c.  Do 
you  know  one  word  by  which  to  speak  of  all  these  to- 
gether ?  Yes ;  clothing.  Yes,  and  feathers  are  the  cloth- 
ing of  birds.  Now  look  at  this  feather  (the  teacher  throws 
it  up  in  the  air) ;  what  do  you  see  ?  It  flies  about.  If  I 
throw  this  cent  in  the  air,  will  it  do  the  same?  No, 
teacher,  it. will  fall  to  the  ground  at  once.  Why  does 
the  feather  float  in  the  air,  and  the  cent  fall  to  the 
ground  ?  Because  the  feather  is  light,  and  the  cent 
is  heavy.  I  wish  some  of  the  older  children  to  tell  me 
why  a  covering  so  light  as  feathers  is  best  suited  to  birds  ? 
2* 


84  FIBST  STJSP. — LESSON   IX. 

Because  they  have  to  fly  in  the  air.  Yes ;  and  if  they  had 
very  heavy  clothing  they  would  fall  down.  We  see  then 
that  the  great  God  who  is  in  heaven  cares  even  for  the 
little  birds.  He  tells  us  in  His  Holy  Word,  that  not  even  a 
sparrow  falls  to  the  ground  without  His  knowing  it ;  and 
if  He  observes  all  that  the  little  birds  do,  and  takes  such 
care  of  them,  do  you  think  He  will  ever  forget  you  or  me  ? 
Oh  no,  dear  children !  He  knows  everything  you  do,  and 
everything  that  happens  to  you ;  and,  in  the  same  chapter 
of  the  Bible  in  which  He  speaks  of  His  care  of  the  sparrows, 
He  says,  much  more  will  he  take  care  of  His  children  ;  you 
shall  learn  this  verse,  and  I  hope,  when  you  see  the  little 
birds  flying  about  so  happily,  you  will  remember  that  God, 
who  takes  such  care  of  them,  will  never  forget  you. 

But  now  examine  the  feather,  and  tell  me  what  colors  you 
see  in  it.  Part  of  it  is  white^  and  part  of  it  is  brown.  Here 
is  another  feather ;  what  color  is  it  ?  It  is  green.  What 
then  do  you  perceive  as  to  the  color  of  feathers.  They 
difler.  You  may  say,  then,  feathers  are  of  different  colors. 
Pass  the  feather  round,  and  try  to  find  out  more  about  it. 
It  is  soft.  Is  every  part  of  the  feather  soft  ?  No,  not  the 
part  in  the  middle.  And  what '^of  that  ?  It  is  hard.  That 
hard  part  of  the  feather  is  called  the  shaft.  What  can  you 
say  of  the  shaft  ?  It  is  hard.  All  repeat :  tfie  shaft  of  tht 
feather  is  hard.  What  other  difference  is  there  between 
the  shaft  of  the  feather  and  the  downy  part  of  it  ?  ♦  The 
shaft  shines,  and  the  downy  part  does  not.  What  do  you 
call  things  that  shine  ?     Bright.     And  things  that  do  not 

*  As  feathers  vary  very  much,  the  qualities  will,  of  courae,  depead 
opon  the  particular  specimen  chosen  for  the  lesson. 


A   FEATHER.  35 

shine  ?  Dull.  Then  the  shaft  of  the  feather  is  bright.,  and 
the  down  is  duU.  What  other  difference  do  you  perceive  ? 
Feel  the  feather.  We  cannot  easily  bend  the  shaft.  Do 
any  of  you  know  what  we  call  things  that  cannot  be  easily 
bent  ?  I  think  you  must  have  heard  ;  but  attend,  and  try 
and  remember  what  I  say  to  you  :  things  that  cannot  easily 
be  bent  are  said  to  be  stiff.  Tell  me  some  things  that  are 
stiff?  Wood,  slate.  And  what  can  you  say  of  the  shaft  of 
the  feather  ?  It  is  stiff.  Yes,  the  shaft  is  stiff.,  you  cannot 
easily  5ewc?  it ;  but  the  down  you  can  easily  bend.  Hold  up 
the  feather  to  the  light ;  we  can  see  through  it.  Can  you 
see  through  the  feather  itself?  No,  but  between  the 
parts  of  it.  But  if  I  put  all  the  parts  of  the  feather 
close  together,  what  do  you  find  then  ?  We  cannot  see 
through  it. 

And  now  you  shall  tell  me  what  aro^the  uses  of  feathers? 
They  are  used  for  beds.  Why  do  they  make  nice  beds  ? 
Because  they  are  soft.  Why  are  they  a  suitable  clothing 
for  birds?  Because  they  are  light.  Feathers  then  are 
useful  to  us  because  they  are  soft ;  they  are  useful  to  birds 
because  they  are  ligh%  and  keep  them  warm.  Did  you 
ever  see  a  slender  piece  of  wood,  pointed  at  one  end,  with 
three  feathers  fastened  on  the  other  end  ?  Yes,  teacher. 
What  is  it  called?  An  arrow.  Why  were  the  feathers 
put  on  the  wood  ?  To  make  the  arrow  fly  in  a  straight 
line. 

Well ;  you  shall  now  repeat  all  that  you  have  said  about 
feathers :  "  Feathers  are  the  clothing  of  birds  ;  God  has 
given  birds  a  very  light  clothing,  that  they  may  the  more 
easily  fly  in  the  air ;  God  takes  care  of  the  birds,  much 


36  FIBST  STEP. — LESSON   X, 

more  will  He  take  care  of  us  ;  feathers  are  of  various  col- 
ors ;  the  shaft  of  the  feather  is  hard^  bright y  and  stiff ; 
the  downy  part  is  soft  and  dvU^  and  we  can  easily  bend  it ; 
we  cannot  see  through  the  feather  /  feathers  are  used  for 
stuffing  beds,  because  they  are  softy  and  for  arrows,  to  make 
them  fly  in  a  straight  line.''^ 


LESSON    X. 

LOAF    SUGAR. 

You  can  all  tell  me  what  this  is.  Yes.  It  is  sugar. 
What  kind  of  sugar  is  it  ?  White  sugar.  Those  who  can 
tell  me  what  sugar  is,  hold  up  their  hands.  You  remember 
where  the  lead  comes  from  ?  Out  of  the  earth.  And  the 
feather  ?  From  off  -the  bird.  Now  I  will  tell  you  about 
sugar;  it  is  made  from  the  juice  that  is  pressed  out  of  the 
stem  of  a  plant.  Here  is  the  picture  of  the  plant.  The 
plant  is  called  the  sugarcane,  and  a  very  nice  juice,  which 
contains  the  sugar,  is  pressed  out  from  the  stem.  Look  at 
the  people  in  this  picture.  Are  they  like  me  ?  No,  teach- 
er, they  are  very  dark.  Some  day  we  will  talk  about  the 
countries  in  which  the  sugar-cane  grows,  and  where  the 
dark-colored  people  live.  Now,  you  must  tell  me  all  you 
can  yourselves  find  out  about  the  sugar.  It  is  sweet.  You 
all  know  that.  Repeat :  "  Sugar  is  sweet.'*'*  Look,  I  put  a 
piece  of  the  sugar  into  some  water ;  what  do  you  perceive  ? 
It  dissolves.  Look  again:  I  hold  it  to  the  flame  of  the 
candle.  It  melts.  What  then  can  you  say  of  sugar  ?  It 
dissolves  in  water  and  it  melts  in  fire.    Repeat ;  "  JSugar 


LOAF    SUGAR.  37 

dissolves  in  water  and  melts  in  fireP  *  Now  in  what  do 
lead  and  sugar  differ  ?  They  both  melt  in  fire,  but  the 
sugar  alone  dissolves  in  water.  Now  look  at  the  sugar, 
and  feel  of  it,  and  tell  me  anything  you  find  out.  It  is 
hard.  What  more  ?  It  is  white.  Is  all  sugar  white  ? 
No,  some  sugar  is  brown.  Look  at  this  piece  of  sugar 
again.  It  is  bright.  Is  it  bright  in  the  same  way  that  lead 
is  bright  ?  No,  little  bits  of  the  sugar  are  bright.  Yes,  it 
appears  like  a  number  of  little  bright  sparks ;  it  is  said  to 
be  sparkling.  What  can  you  say  of  sugar  ?  It  is  spark- 
ling. Repeat  together:  "  White  sugar  is  sparkling?'' 
Well,  try  again.  It  is  in  a  lump.  Is  all  sugar  the  same? 
No,  brown  sugar  is  not  in  a  lump  as  this  is.  Did  you  ever 
see  an  uncut  piece  of  white  sugar  in  a  grocer's  shop? 
What  was  its  shape  ?  Round.  Was  it  all  the  way  up  the 
same  size  ?  No,  it  became  smaller  and  smaller,  till  it  end- 
ed in  a  rounded  point.  What  is  the  use  of  sugar  ?  To 
sweeten  tea.  What  more  ?  To  sweeten  puddings ;  to 
sweeten  our  food.  Now  repeat  the  heads  of  the  lesson; 
"  Sugar  is  made  from  the  juice  of  sugar-cane  ;  it  is  very 
sweet ;  it  melts  in  fire  and  dissolves  in  water.  Loaf  sugar 
is  white,  hard,  and  sparkling  y  sugar  is  used  to  sweeten 
our  food:'* 

*  The  teacher  should  have  a  clear  perception  of  the  difference  be- 
tween the  melting  or  fusion  of  a  solid  substance  and  the  dissolving  of 
substances. 


88  FIRST  STEP. LESSON   XI. 

LESSON  XL 

FLINT. 

What  is  this  ?  A  flint.  What  is  a  flint  ?  A  sort  of 
stone.  Where  do  we  find  stones  ?  In  the  earth.  Look 
at  it ;  what  can  you  say  of  it  ?  It  is  black.  The  teacher 
holds  up  the  flint.  What  do  you  all  say  of  the  color  of  the 
flint  ?  It  is  black.  Repeat  together :  "  Tlie  flint  is 
hlack?''  What  more  do  you  see  ?  It  shines.  All  of  you 
repeat :  "  The  flint  shines^  Do  you  think  a  piece  of  flint 
would  make  a  good  window  ?  No.  Why  not  ?  We 
could  not  see  through  it.  All  repeat :  "  We  cannot  see 
through  flinty  Tell  me  some  other  things  through  which 
you  cannot  see.  The  walls,  the  slates,  &c.  Now  pass  the 
flint  round  and  feel  of  it.  What  now  can  you  say  of  it  ? 
It  is  hard ;  it  is  cold.  Kepeat  together :  "  The  flint  is  hard 
and  cold?"*  What  more  do  you  observe  ?  It  is  smooth. 
Repeat :  "  The  flint  is  smooth.^^  Feel  the  edges.  They 
are  sharp.  Repeat :  "  The  edges  of  the  fli?it  are  sharp.''"' 
The  teacher  strikes  a  piece  of --flint  and  a  piece  of  steel  to- 
gether. What  am  I  doing  ?  Striking  the  flint  and  steel 
together.  What  do  you  see  ?  Sparks  of  fire.  What  pro- 
duced the  sparks?  The  striking  the  flint  and  steel  to- 
gether.   Repeat  together :  "  Flint  strikes  fire  with  steeV 

Now  repeat  all  that  has  been  said  about  flint :  '-''Flint 
is  a  stone;  it  comes  out  of  the  earth;  it  is  black ;  we 
cannot  see  through  it ;  when  we  touch  it  we  feel  that  it  is 
cold^  hard^  smooth^  and  sharp  at  the  edges  ;  a?id  it  is  used 
to  strike  fire.'*'* 


WOOL.  39 

LESSON  xn. 

WOOL. 

What  is  this  ?  Wool.  Where  does  wool  come  from  ? 
It  comes  from  off  the  sheep's  back.  What  is  a  sheep  ?  An 
animal.  What  is  wool  then  ?  Part  of-  an  animal.  Of 
what  use  is  the  wool  to  the  sheep  ?  It  keeps  it  warm. 
Can  the  sheep  make  its  own  wool  ?  'No.  Who  gave  the 
little  sheep  this  warm  clothing  ?  God.  Yes,  God  gave  the 
sheep  this  warm  clothing,  because  it  could  not  make  cloth- 
ing for  itself 

Now  pass  this  wool  round  the  class  :  look  at  it,  and  feel 
it,  and  tell  me  what  you  can  find  out  about  it.  It  is  soft. 
Repeat :  "  Wool  is  sofV  It  is  all  hairs.  Yes.  Repeat 
then :  "  JFool  is  formed  of  hairs^  Feel  it  again.  It  is 
dry.  Repeat :  "  Wool  is  dry?"*  What  more  ?  It  is  warm. 
Does  it  feel  warm,  as  fire  does  ?  No.  What  do  you  mean 
then  ?  That  anything  made  of  wool  keeps  us  warm.  Re- 
peat :  "  Wool  keeps  us  warm.'''*  Yes,  it  keeps  us  warm,  be- 
cause it  prevents  the  warmth  of  our  bodies  from  passing 
away  from  us. 

Who  can  tell  me  what  wool  is  used  for?  To  make 
stockings  and  flannel.  What  do  you  call  that  very  thick 
flannel  which  you  have  on  your  beds  ?  Blanket.  Do  you 
kpow  any  kind  of  clothes  which  are  made  of  wool.  Yes, 
our  fathers'  coats.  And  what  have  some  persons  on  their 
floors  to  keep  their  feet  warm?  Carpets.  Carpets  are 
made  of  wool. 

Now  repeat  all  you  have  said  of  wool :  "  Wool  come* 


40  FIRST  STEP. — LESSON   XIH. 

from  off  the  sheep* s  hack ;  it  is  the  clothing  which  God 
gives  the  sheep  to  keep  it  warm  ;  wool  is  soft,  dry^  and  made 
up  of  hairs  ;  it  keeps  us  warm  /  it  is  made  into  stockings, 
fannel,  blankets,  and  carpets,'*'* 

LESSON    XIII. 

A   PIECE   OF  BARK. 

"What  is  this?  A  piece  of  bark.  All  look  at  it. 
Where  do  we  find  bark?  On  trees.  On  what  part  of 
trees?  On  the  stem.  On  which  part  of  the  stem?  Look 
and  see.  (The  teacher  brings  in  a  piece  of  the  stem  of  a 
tree  on  which  the  bark  still  remains.)  On  the  outside. 
Repeat  together :  "  Bark  is  the  outer  part  of  the  stems  of 
trees.'*'* 

Look  at  the  bark ;  what  do  you  perceive  ?  It  is  hrown. 
Repeat :  "  Bark  is  hrown.'*'*  Look  again ;  is  it  like  glass  ? 
No,  we  cannot  see  through  it.  What  can  you  SAy  of  it 
then?  We  cannot  see  through  bark.  Compare  it  with 
glass.  It  does  not  shine.  When  anything  does  not  shine 
at  all,  it  is  said  to  be  dull ;  what  is  the  bark  ?  It  is  dull. 
Repeat :  "  The  hark  is  dulV*  Show  me  some  things  in  the 
room  tha'tf  are  dull.  Now  feel  of  the  bark.  It  is  rough. 
And  what  more  ?  It  is  dry.  Now  look  (th^  teacher 
separates  the  fibres),  it  has  strings  or  hairs.  These  strings 
or  hairs  are  called  fibres,  and  we  say  the  bark  is  fibrous. 
Repeat :  "  The  hark  is  fibrous.'*'*  Some  plants  have  very 
fibrous  stems,  and  are  very  useful  to  us  on  this  account ; 
here  are  some  of  the  fibres  of  hemp ;  and  here  are  some 
of  flax,  which  supplies  much  of  our  clothing.     I  think  you 


A   BOOK.  41 

can  find  out  something  more  if  you  feel  the  bark  agaia 
Yes ;  it  is  hard. 

Now  repeat  all  you  have  said :  "  Barh  is  the  outside 
covering  of  the  stems  of  trees  ;  it  is  brown  ;  loe  cannot  se6 
through  it ;  it  is  roughs  dull^  dry^  hard^  and  fibrous:^ 

LESSON  XIV. 

A  BOOK. 

In  the  following  lessons,  tenns  expressing  qualities  that 
may  be  developed  are  given.  The  lessons  may  be  carried 
out  on  the  same  general  plan  as  the  preceding.  In  no  case 
should  a  term  be  given  before  the  idea  is  developed,  and 
the  necessity  for  it  is  felt.  Where  the  quality  is  not  appa- 
rent to  the  sensef ,  it  must  be  brought  out  by  experiment. 

Parts. 


The  outside. 

The  leaves. 

inside. 

pages. 

edges. 

margin. 

corners. 

beginning. 

binding. 

type. 

paper. 

letters. 

back. 

numbers. 

sides. 

stops. 

top. 

words. 

bottom. 

sentences. 

title  page. 

syllables. 

preface. 

lettering. 

introduction. 

stitching. 

contents. 

lines. 

end. 

paragraphs. 

i2  riEST   STEP. — ^LESSON   XV. 

The  children  should  determine  the  position  of  the  dif* 
ferent  parts,  their  form  and  uses. 


T-ESSON  XV. 

A  PIN. 

Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  head. 

It  is  hard. 

shank. 

white. 

point. 

bright. 

solid. 

smooth. 

The  head  is  round. 

The  point  is  sharp. 

The  shank  is  straight. 

tapering. 

Use. — To  keep  together  for  a  time  parts  of  dress,  &t. 
LESSON      XVI. 

A  CUBE   OP  WOOD. 

The  cube  will  convey  to  the  children  a  good  idea  of  a 
surface  ;  but  as  some  confusion  is  likely  to  arise  in  their 
minds,  when  they  are  informed  that  what  bounds  every 
part  of  an  object,  and  can  be  felt  or  seen,  is  the  surface^ 
and  then,  when  they  find  that  the  surface  is  divided  into 
parts,  to  be  told  that  these  divisions  are  caUed  surfaces,  it 
is  therefore  necessary  to  give  them  a  name  for  the  divisions 
of  the  surface — that  oi  faces  has  been  adopted.  A  sphere 
may  be  shown  as  an  example  of  an  undivided  surface,  and 
by  comparing  it  with  the  cube,  a  clear  idea  of  what  is  meant 
by  surface  and  faces  may  be  elicited. 


A  THIMBLE.                                                    '. 

Parts. 

Qualities. 

The  surface. 

It  is  hard. 

faces. 

light. 

edges. 

solid. 

corners. 

brown. 

smooth. 

dull. 

burns  with  a  flame. 

The  faces  are  flat. 

square. 

The  edges  are  straight. 

The  corners  are  sharp. 

LESSON  XVII. 

A   THIMBLE. 

Parts. 

Qualities. 

The  inside. 

It  is  hollow. 

outside. 

silver. 

top. 

full  of  little  holes. 

bottom. 

white. 

rim. 

bright. 

border. 

hard. 

curved. 

The  inside  is  smooth. 

The  outside  is  rough. 

43 


Use. — ^To  preserve  the  middle  finger  from  being  pricked 
in  working. 

LESSON  xvin 


A   KEY. 


Parts. 
The  ring, 
barrel. 


Qualities. 
It  is  hard, 
steel. 


i4 


PIEST  STEP. — ^LESSON   XVIII. 


Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  wards. 

The  bright. 

grooves. 

smooth. 

edges. 

stiff. 

surface. 

liable  to  rust. 

corners. 

Part  of  the  barrel  is  hollow. 

The  barrel 

is  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder. 

The 

ring 

is  curved. 

Places  locked  up  by  a  key. — Doors,  gates,  boxes, 
desks,  portmanteaus,  trunks,  portfolios,  tea  chests,  closets, 
drawers,  cabinets,  &c. 


LESSON  XIX. 

A    CUF 

»^ 

Parts. 

Qualities. 

The  bowl. 

It  is  hollow. 

handle. 

hard. 

upper  rim. 

curved. 

lower  rim. 

glossy. 

bottom. 

smooth. 

inside. 

glazed. 

outside.* 

^ 

thin. 

edges. 

TK5: 

rim  is  circular. 

surface. 

*  From  the  examination  of  such  an  object  as  a  cup,  glass,  any  vessel, 
or  a  box,  children  may  be  led  to  discriminate  clearly  the  difference  be- 
tween outside  and  surface,  and  to  see  that  the  former  is  the  opposite  to 
the  inside,  while  the  latter  is  the  boundary  of  every  part  of  an  object 


A  PAIR   or   SCISSORS. 


45 


LESSON  XX. 

A 

PAIR   OF    SCISSORS. 

Parts. 

Qualities. 

Ihe  limbs. 

It  is  steel. 

bows. 

bright. 

blades. 

hard. 

shanks. 

cold. 

rivets. 

solid. 

pivot. 

The  blades  are  pointed. 

points. 

One  face  is  flat. 

surface. 

The  other  curved. 

faces. 

The  front  edge  sharp. 

The  back  blunt. 

The  bows  are  curved. 

Tho  cLiMren  should  name  the  kind  of  materials  which 
sjssors  will  cut,  and  point  out  the  different  manner  in 
which  knives  and  scissors  cut. 


LESSON    XXI. 

A   BIRD. 

Parts. 

The  head, 
body, 
wings, 
legs.      ^ 
beak. 

The  qualities  would 
Principal               depend  on  the  kind 
parts.                  of  bird  chosen  for 
the  lesson. 

eyes. 

nostrils. 

neck. 

a 


FIRST  STEP. — ^LESSON  XXn. 


Parts, 

Parts, 

The  feathers. 

The  skin. 

bones. 

feet. 

claws. 

joints. 

LESSON 

XXII. 

AN   ORANGE. 

Parts,  Qualities, 

The  peel.  It  is  reddish  yellow,  oi 
rind  of  the  peel.  orange  color, 

white  of  the  peel.  in  the  form  of  a  ball. 


juice. 

rough  on  the  outside. 

pulp. 

The  pulp 

is  juicy. 

seeds. 

soft. 

eye. 

cooling. 

divisions. 

sweet  when  ripe. 

membrane. 

vegetable. 

inside. 

solid. 

outside. 

It  has 

a  sweet  smelL 

surface. 

.^ 


PIECE   OF   INDIA  EUBBKE, 


47 


SECOND     STEP. 

In  this  Step  the  children  continue  to  be  exercised  on 
the  more  obvious  qualities,  and  the  sj^ecific  term  by  which 
to  express  the  quality  is  given. 

LESSON   I. 

A.  PIECE   OF  INDIA   RUBBER,  TO   DEVELOP   THE    IDEA   OF    ONE 
KIND   OF   ELASTICITY. 

Present  the  India  rubber,  and  ask  its  name ;  then  call  a 
child  to  try  and  see  what  he  can  do  to  it.  He  can  bend  it 
and  stretch  it.  Then  call  the  children's  attention  to  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  India  rubber,  and  to  the  child  when 
stretching  it,  asking  them  what  he  is  doing  to  it,  and  what 
change  they  notice  in  it  when  he  is  stretching  it  ?  It  be- 
comes longer.  Then  tell  the  child  to  let  go  the  end  he  has 
pulled  out,  calling  on  the  children  to  observe  what  happens 
to  the  India  rubber.  It  returns  to  its  shape.  What  was 
done  to  the  India  rubber  ?  How  did  it  appear  while  it  was 
being  stretched?  What  happened  to  it  when  let  go? 
Now  what  have  you  particularly  observed  in  India  rubber  ? 
India  rubber  will  stretch  when  pulled  out,  and  returns  to 


48  SECOND    STEP. ^LESSON   U.  ' 

its  place  when  let  go.  Children,  repeat  this  together.  Do 
you  know  how  to  describe  this  property  of  India  rubber  ? 
It  is  said  to  be  elastic.  Repeat  this  word  together. 
When  are  things  said  to  be  elactic  ?  Tell  me  something 
that  is  elastic.  Why  do  you  say  that  India  rubber  is 
elastic  ? 

Call  upon  a  child  to  name  that  property  of  India  rubber 
which  has  been  illustrated  in  the  lesson,  and  then  all  repeat 
the  name  of  the  property  together. 

LESSON  II. 

A   PIECE    OF   SPONGE,   TO    DEVELOP  THE  IDEA    OF   ONE    KIND 
OF   ELASTICITY. 

The  name  of  the  object  first  to  be  determined  ;  then  a 
child  is  to  be  asked  to  try  what  can  be  done  to  it,  when  it 
will  be  found  that  it  can  be  pressed  close  together.  Ask 
how  the  sponge  appears  when  it  is  pressed  tightly.  It  ap- 
pears much  smaller  than  before.  Then  tell  the  child  to  let 
it  go,  bidding  all  observe ;  the  sponge  returns  to  its  former 
shape  and  size.  One  child  is  now  to  describe  that  which 
they  have  all  observed  to  occur,  both  when  the  sponge  was 
pressed,  and  when  the  pressure  was  removed  ;  then  all  re- 
peat together :  "  Sponge  can  be  pressed  into  a  small  spaccj 
but  returns  to  its  own  shape  and  size  when  no  longer 
pressed^  Do  you  recollect  something  else,  that  after  you 
have  stretched  it  out,  comes  back  to  its  shape  when  you 
let  it  go?  What  did  you  say  that  the  India  rubber  was? 
In  what  are  the  India  rubber  and  the  sponge  alike?  They 
both  return  to  their  size  and  shape  when  you  leave  them 


WHALEBONE.  49 

to  themselves.  Was  the  same  done  to  both  ?  What  was 
the  difference  ?  The  India  rubber  was  stretched,  the 
sponge  was  pressed.  In  what  were  they  alike  ?  They 
both  returned  to  their  shape  when  left  to  themselves. 
What  did  we  say  the  India  rubber  was?  The  sponge 
is  also  elastic.  Now  what  things  are  elastic  ?  Why  is 
the  India  rubber  said  to  be  elastic  ?  Why  is  sponge  said 
to  be  elastic  ?  The  children  to  be  questioned  as  to  the  dif- 
ferent ways  in  which  things  return  to  their  shape  or  size, 
till  they  gain  the  clear  idea  "  that  those  things  are  said  to 
he  elastic^  which,  when  their  shape  or  size  has  been  changed 
by  force^  rrturn  to  it  if  left  to  themselves.'^''  They  should 
repeat  this  together  several  times.  The  children  then  to 
say  what  is  one  of  the  most  striking  qualities  of  a  sponge. 


LESSON  III. 

WHALEBO'^E,  TO    DEVELOP   THE    IDEA    OF   ONE    KIND    OP 
ELASTICITY. 

See  that  the  children  know  what  the  object  is  ;  and  then 
call  one  cf  them  to  try  and  see  what  he  can  do  to  it ;  he 
will  find  that  he  can  bend  it ;  tell  him  to  let  go  one  end  of 
it,  and  bid  the  others  observe  what  happens;  after  this, 
question  them  concerning  its  returning  to  its  former  shape. 
What  kind  of  a  line  was  it  before  it  was  bent  ?  What  when 
you  bent  it  ?  What  was  it  when  you  let  one  end  of  it 
go  ?  Then  give  a  child  a  piece  of  cloth ;  tell  him  to  bend 
it ;  then  tell  him  to  let  go  of  one  end  of  it,  and  see  whether 
it  will  do  as  the  whalebone  did,  telling  him  also  to  state 
3 


60  SECOND   STEP. — LESSON   III. 

what  he  sees.  The  cloth  remains  bent,  but  what  did  you 
observe  in  the  whalebone?  After  bending  it,  it  returned 
to  its  own  shape.  What  then  can  you  say  of  whalebone  ? 
It  can  be  bent,  and  on  being  let  go,  returns  to  its  own 
shape.  Anything  which  has  this  property  which  you  have 
observed  is  said  to  be  elastic.  Repeat  this  word  to- 
gether. What  is  whalebone  ?  Why  is  whalebone  said  to 
be  elastic  ? 

Let  the  children  be  required  to  say  what  other  things 
they  have  learned  about,  which  are  elastic,  and  describe  in 
what  respect  their  elasticity  differs  from  that  of  whalebone. 
One  of  these,  when  stretched^  returns  to  its  former  shape ; 
another,  when  compressedy  returns  to  its  former  shape ;  and 
whalebone,  when  hent^  returns  to  its  former  shape.  In  what 
were  they  all  alike  ?  They  all  take  their  own  shape  when 
left  to  themselves.  What  can  you  say  of  all  ?  They  are 
all  elastic.  Let  the  children  next  give  the  reason  for  their 
calling  India  rubber  elastic,  and  then  be  told  to  repeat  to- 
gether :  "  India  rubber  is  said  to  be  elastic,  because,  after 
being  stretched  out,  it  goes  back  to  its  own  shape  when 
left  to  itself."  Let  another  of  them  say  why  sponge  is  said 
to  be  elastic,  and  then  let  all  .repeat  together :  "  Sponge  is 
said  to  be  elastic,  because,  after  having  been  compressed, 
it  takes  its  own  shape  and  size  when  left  to  itself."  An- 
other should  say  in  what  manner  whalebone  is  elastic,  and 
then  all  repeat  together :  ^'  Wficdebone  is  elastic,  because, 
when  it  has  been  bent,  it  goes  back  to  its  own  shape  when 
left  to  itself." 


A.   PIECE    OF   GLASS.  5) 


LESSON  IV. 

A    PIECE    OF    GLASS,    TO    DEVELOP    THE    IDEA    OF    TRANS- 
PAKENCY. 

.  The  teacher  is  to  show  the  children  a  piece  of  glass,  and 
to  lead  them  to  observe  its  transparency ;  preparing  them 
for  this  by  holding  a  pebble,  or  any  similar  object,  behind 
the  black  board  or  the  slate,  and  asking  them  what  she  has 
in  her  hand ;  this  they  will  not  be  able  to  tell ;  the  object 
should  then  be  withdrawn  from  behind  the  board,  and  held 
behind  the  glass,  and  the  same  question  asked,  which  they 
will  now  be  able  to  answer.  She  may  then  ask  them  why 
they  could  not  tell  her  what  she  had  in  her  hand  when  she 
held  it  behind  the  slate,  and  why  they  could  tell  her  what 
it  was  when  she  held  it  behind  the  glass.  Then  they  should 
be  asked  what  they  can  say  of  the  glass,  and  repeat  to- 
gether ;  "  We  can  see  through  the  glass." 

The  teacher  asks  the  children  what  they  have  observed 
in  glass,  and  says :  Now  I  will  tell  you  what  we  call  that 
quality  which  you  have  observed.  When  we  can  see 
through  a  thing  we  say  it  is  transparent ;  repeat  this  word 
together.  What  is  glass  ?  Why  do  we  say  it  is  trans- 
parent ?  What  can  you  say  of  water  ?  When  are  things 
called  transparent  ?  Desire  the  children  also  to  mention 
some  other  things  that  they  can  see  through,  and  what 
they  can  say  of  them  ;  the  word  transparent  is  then  writ- 
ten on  the  board,  and  they  learn  to  spell  it. 


62  SECOND  STEP. LESSON  V. 

LESSON  V. 

A  PIECE   OF   SLATE,  TO   DEVELOP   THE  IDEA   OF   OPACITY, 

What  is  this?  A  piece  of  slate.  Repeat  together: 
"  This  is  slate.'*'*  Which  of  you  can  tell  me  in  what  part 
of  a  house  slate  is  sometimes  used?  (Show  of  hands.) 
Yes;  in  the  roof.  It  does  well  for  covering  the  roof;  but 
what  would  you  say  to  making  the  windows  of  slate? 
Why  would  it  not  do  as  well  as  glass  ?  We  could  not  see 
through  it.  Let  us  try  whether  we  can  see  anything 
through  slate.  The  teacher  holds  it  up,  and  puts  several 
things  behind  it,  which  of  course  cannot  be  seen.  What 
then  can  you  say  of  slate  ?  Why  would  it  not  do  for  win- 
dows ?  We  should  not  be  able  to  see  through  it.  But 
more  than  that.  Suppose  the  windows  of  this  room  to  be 
of  slate  instead  of  glass,  what  would  the  room  be  ?  It 
would  be  dark.  What  is  it  that  comes  into  the  room 
through  the  glass  ?  Light.  What  then  is  it  that  does  not 
come  through  slate  ?  Not  even  light  can  be  seen  through 
slate.  What  can  you  say  of  slate  ?  We  cannot  see  through 
slate.  Now  that  you  have 'observed  this  quality  in  slate  I 
will  tell  you  what  such  things  are  said  to  be.  Tell  me 
again  what  this  quality  is  which  you  have  observed  in 
slate.  That  we  cannot  see  through  it ;  we  cannot  even  see 
light  through  it.  Such  things  are  said  to  be  opaque.  Re- 
peat this  word  together.  Now  repeat  together :  "  Slate  is 
opaque?'*  Tell  me  something  else  that  is  opaque.  Why 
are  wood,  stone,  and  such  like  things,  said  to  be  opaque  ? 
What  do  you  say  wood  is  ?    Repeat  together :  "  Wood  is 


LEATHER.  53 


opaque^''''  &c.  When  is  anything  said  to  be  opaque  ?  The 
word  must  now  be  written  on  the  board,  and  the  children 
should  learn  to  spell  it.  Now  repeat  together  that  quality 
of  slate  which  you  have  now  noticed.     "  Slate  is  opaque:'* 


LESSON    VI. 

LEATHER. 

What  is  this?  It  is  leather.  What  is  leather?  It  is 
the  skin  of  animals.  Name  some  animals,  the  skins  of 
which  are  used  for  leather.  The  cow,  the  horse,  the  calf, 
the  sheep,  and  the  dog.  Does  the  skin  of  these  animals 
look  like  this  leather?  No.  What  is  the  difference? 
Their  skins  are  covered  with  hair.  What  has  been  done 
to  them  in  making  the  leather  ?  The  Hair  has  been  scraped 
off.  Yes ;  and  the  skin  has  been  cleaned  and  smoothed. 
How  do  we  get  paper  ?  It  is  made  of  rags.  Is  leather 
made  by  man,  as  paper  is  ?  No.  But  has  he  nothing  to 
do  to  the  skin  of  the  animal  in  order  to  make  it  into 
leather  ?     Yes ;  it  is  prepared  by  him  for  use. 

This  is  a  piece  of  the  skin  of  a  horse.  What  has  been 
done  to  it  ?  It  has  been  prepared.  Now  look  at  it  and 
tell  me  what  you  see  in  it.  It  is  black.  Yes  ;  this  side  of 
it  is  black;  but  this  is  brown.  And  what  side  would  you 
call  that  which  is  black  ?  The  upper  side.  And  what  that 
which  is  brown  ?  The  under  side.  Then  how  should  you 
describe  this  piece  of  leather?  The  upper  side  of  it  is 
black,  and  the  under  side  brown.  Look  at  it  again.  We 
cannot  see  through  it.     You  have  learned   the  term  for 


64  SECOND   STEP. LESSON  VI. 

this,  have  you  not  ?  Yes ;  it  is  opaque.  (The  teacher  writes 
the  word  on  the  board,  and  the  children  spell  it.)  Tell  me 
some  things  which  are  opaque.  Stone,  wood,  slate.  What 
are  all  these  ?  Look  at  the  leather  again.  It  is  dull.  Ob- 
serve both  sides  of  it.  The  upper  side  is  rather  bright ; 
the  under  side  is  dull.  Now  you  have  said  that  this  leather 
is  black  and  bright  on  the  upper  side,  and  brown  and  dull 
on  the  under  side,  and  that  it  is  opaque.  How  did  you  find 
out  these  qualities  ?     Yes,  by  your  sight. 

Now,  take  the  leather  in  your  hand,  and  tell  me  wliat 
you  observe.  It  is  thin.  But  if  you  compare  it  with  the 
paper,  what  would  you  say  ?  It  is  not  so  thin  as  the  paper. 
What  more  do  you  notice  when  you  feel  of  it  ?  It  is 
smooth.  Compare  the  two  sides.  The  upper  side  is  the 
smoother.  Try  again  what  you  can  do  with  it.  We  can 
easily  bend  it.  What  could  you  do  with  the  paper  ?  Fold 
it  up.  Can  you  do  the  same  with  the  leather  ?  No  ;  we 
can  bend  it ;  on  this  account  it  is  said  to  he  flexible.  When 
do  we  call  a  thing  flexible  ?  When  we  can  easily  bend  it. 
What  can  you  do  with  the  paper  besides  bending  and  fold- 
ing it  ?  We  can  tear  it.  Try  to  tear  the  leather.  We 
cannot  do  so.  Why  ?  Because  it  is  tough.  Take  it  in 
your  hand  again,  and  try  if  you  can  say  anything  more  of 
it.  It  is  light.  Now,  you  have  told  me  that  this  leather 
is  thirty  smooth^  flexible^  tough,  and  light ;  how  did  you  dis- 
cover these  qualities  ?  By  our  hands.  Yes,  by  feeling  or 
touch. 

Now  shut  your  eyes,  and  I  will  hold  the  leather  near 
you,  but  without  letting  you  sec  it  or  touch  it ;  what  can 
you  tell  me  about  it  now  ?    It  has  a  smell.     Whatever  has 


LEATHER.  '  ^  55 

a  smell  is  said  to  be  odorous.  What  then  is  leather  ?  It 
is  odorous.  How  did  you  find  out  that  it  was  odorous  ? 
By  the  nose.  In  what  manner  ?  By  smelling  it.  You 
found  out  some  qualities  in  this  leather  by  the  eye.  Yes. 
In  what  way  ?  By  looking  at  it.  And  some  qualities  you 
found  out  by  the  hand.  Yes.  How  did  you  do  tliis  ?  We 
touched  it.  And  you  found  out  that  it  was  odorous  by  the 
7iose.     In  what  manner  ?     We  smelled  of  it. 

Are  you  now  wearing  anything  made  of  leather  ?  Yes, 
shoes.  Why  is  leather  fit  for  shoes  ?  It  is  strong.  Yes, 
it  is  strong  or  durable.  Why  does  your  mother,  in  wet 
weather,  wish  you  to  have  a  good  pair  of  leather  shoes  in 
which  there  are  no  holes  ?  That  our  feet  may  be  kept  dry. 
Then  the  water  does  not  come  through  leather.  It  is  wa- 
terproof. Why  then  is  leather  fit  for  shoes  ?  Because  it 
is  durable  and  waterproof.  You  have  before  mentioned 
some  other  qualities  which  make  leather  fit  for  shoes;  you 
would  not  like,  I  should  think,  to  wear  iron  shoes  ?  Why 
not?  Because  they  would  be  so  heavy.  Leather  then  is 
fit  for  shoes  because  it  is  light.  Why  would  wooden  shoes 
be  unpleasant  to  wear  ?  They  would  hurt  the  feet.  Why 
does  leather  not  hurt  the  feet  ?  It  bends  to  the  shape  of 
the  foot.     Yes ;  it  is  flexible. 

Now,  I  will  show  you  something  more  in  the  leather ; 
see,  I  put  it  in  the  fire ;  it  frizzles  up.  What  did  you  no- 
tice in  the  paper  when  put  into  the  fire  ?  It  was  soon 
burned  up.  And  what  do  you  observe  in  the  leather  ?  It 
has  a  very  unpleasant  smell  when  burning.  This  is  what 
happens  to  animal  substances  when  you  burn  them ;  they 
frizzle  up,  and  give  out  a  disagreeable  odor. 


66  SECOND   STEP. — ^LESSON  VH. 

Now,  repeat  together  all  that  has  been  said  about 
leather :  "  Leather  is  the  skin  of  an  animal.''''  What  is 
done  to  it  ?  It  is  prepared.  "  Leather,  then,  is  the  pre- 
pared skin  of  an  animal.  By  the  eye,  or  by  the  sense 
of  sight,  we  find  out  that  it  is  black  and  bright  on  the  up- 
per side,  brown  and  dull  on  the  under  surface,  and  that  it 
is  opaque ;  by  our  hands,  or  by  the  sense  of  feeling,  we 
find  that  it  is  thin,  tough,  flexible,  and  smooth  /  by  the 
nose,  or  by  the  sense  of  smell,  we  find  that  it  is  odorous. 
When  we  put  it  into  the  fire  it  frizzles  up,  and  gives  oif  a 
disagreeable  odor :  it  is  fit  for  shoes,  because  it  is  lasting, 
thin,  light,  flexible,  and  waterproofs 

LESSON    VII. 

LOAF  SUGAR. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — soluble,  fusible^ 

brittle* 

Qualities  of  Loaf  Sugar. 

It  is  soluble.  It  is  white, 

fusible.*  sparkling, 

brittle.  '-                solid. 

hard.  opaque, 
sweet. 

Use. — ^To  sweeten  our  food. 

*  The  difference  between  fusibility  and  solubility  may  be  rendered  ob 
vious  to  the  children,  by  dissolving  one  piece  of  sugar  in  water,  and  hold 
ing  another  over  the  candle.  It  is  better  that  such  simple  experiment « 
should  be  performed  in  their  presence,  than  that  a  mere  description  of  tba 
operation  should  be  given. 


▲  PIECE   OF   GUM   A  E  ABIC.  §7 

LESSON  vm. 

^       A  PIECE   OF   GUM   ARABIC. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — semi'transparent^ 

adhesive. 

Qualities  of  Gum  Arabic. 
It  is  hard.  It  is  soluble  in  water. 

bright.  adhesive  when  melted 

yellow.  soUd. 

semi-transparent. 

Use. — ^To  unite  light  and  thin  substances. 
LESSON    IS. 

SPONGE. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson--^orow5,  absorbe*^ 

Qualities  of  /Sponge. 
It  is  porous.  It  is  elastic. 


absorbent.* 

dull. 

soft. 

flexible. 

tough. 

light  brown. 

opaque. 

Use. — For  washing. 

*  The  quality  of  absorbing  will  be  made  obvious  to  the  class  by  show 
ing  that  the  sponge  sucks  up  any  liquid.  It  possesses  this  quality  in  coor 
sequence  of  its  being  full  of  pores.  The  use  to  which  an  object  is  applied, 
often  leads  to  the  observation  of  the  quality  upon  which  the  use  ia  de« 
pendent. 

3* 


58  SECOND   STEP. — LESSON  X. 


LESSON  X. 

WOOL. 

Qualities  of  Wool, 

It  is  soft.                          It  is  tough, 
absorbent.                         durable, 

white. 

flexible. 

elastic. 

opaque. 

dry. 

light. 

Uses. — For  making  cloth,  flannels,  blankets,  carpets, 
stockings,  &c. 

LESSON  XL 

WATEE. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — colorless,   re- 
flectivei  inodorous^  cleansing. 

Qualities  of  Water. 

It  is  liquid.  It  is  inodorous, 

reflective.  transparent, 

glassy.  ^       cleansing, 

colorless.  '  ' 

Uses. — ^To  cleanse ;  to  fertilize ;  to  drink ;  for  cooking 
purposes. 

LESSON    XII. 

A  PIECE  OP  WAX. 

This  substance  is  here  introduced,  because  it  possesses 
many  of  the  qualities  already  noticed. 


CAMPHOR.  59 


Qualities  of  Wax. 

It  is  solid.  It  is  sticky, 
opaque.  yellowish, 

dull.  ,  hard, 

tough.  odorous, 

fusible.  smooth. 

Use. — To  make  candles  and  tapers. 


LESSON   xm. 

CAMPHOR. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — aromaticy  stimu* 
kiting^  inflammable^  soluble  in  spirits. 

Qualities  of  Camphor. 
It  is  aromatic.  It  is  soluble  in  spirits, 

stimulating.  hard, 

white.  solid, 

semi-transparent.  very  inflammable, 

bright.  light. 

Uses. — ^For  medicine ;  to  prevent  the  taking  of  disease ; 
to  preserve  cabinets  from  small  insects. 

LESSON  XIV. 

BREAD. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — edible^  whole* 
some^  nutritious,  moist. 


Qualities  of  Bread. 
Xt  is  porous.  It  is  opaque, 

absorbent.  solid. 


66  SECOND   STEP. — ^LESSON   XV. 

Qualities  of  Bread. 
It  is  wholesome.  The  crumb  is  moist, 

nutritious.  The  crust  is  hard, 

edible.  brittle. 

The  crumb  is  yelld^wrish  white.  brown, 

soft,  when  new. 
Use, — ^To  nourish. 

LESSo:Nr  XV. 

SEALING   WAX. 

Idea  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — impressible. 
Qualities  of  Sealing  Wax. 
It  is  hard.  It  is  smooth, 

bright.  colored* 

brittle.  inflammable, 

fusible.  odorous, 

opaque.  When  fused  it  is  soft, 

soluble  in  spirits.  impressible, 

light.  adhesive, 

solid. 

Use, — ^To  seal  letters. 

LESSON    XVI. 

WHALEBONE. 

Idea  to  be  developed  by  this  \e%%on— fibrous. 
Qualities  of  Whalebone. 


It  is  elastic, 
durable, 
hard. 

It  is  fibrous, 
opaque, 
stiff. 

Uses, — ^As  a 

stiffener ; 

for  whips,  &Q. 

*  The  color  will  be  determined  by  the  epecimen  presentee^ 

GIIfGEB.  61 

LESSON  XYII. 

GINGER. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson-^ungentj  medici* 

nal^  jagged. 

Qualities  of  Ginger, 

It  is  pungent.  It  is  tough, 
dull.  opaque, 

hard.  wholesome. 

dry.  medicinal, 

fibrous.  jagged, 

aromatic.  light  brown. 

Uses, — ^To  flavor  food ;  for  medicine. 
LESSON    XVIII. 

BLOTTING  PAPER. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson— ^mtoA,  pliable^ 

artificial. 

Qualities  of  Blotting  Paper. 

It  is  absorbent.  It  is  pliable, 
porous.  dull, 

soft.  inflammable, 

thin.  easily  torn, 

pinkish.  artificial. 

Use. — ^To  suck  up  superfluous  ink. 
LESSON  XIX. 

A     PIECE     OF     WILLOW. 

Qualities  of  Willow. 
It  is  hard.  It  is  fibrous, 

inflammable.  dull. 


62  SECOND  STEP. — LESSON  XI. 

Qucdities  of  Willow, 
It  is  opaque.  It  is  flexible, 

solid.  white, 

elastic.  odorous. 

LESSON    XX. 

MILK. 

Idea  to  be  developed — greasy. 

Qualities  of  Milk. 
It  is  white.  -  is  greasy, 

liquid.  nutritiouw. 

opaque.  sweet, 

wholesome. 

Uses. — ^To  make  cheese,  butter,  puddings;  to  drink j 
food  for  young  animals. 


LESSON  XXL 

EICE. 

Qualities  of  Bice. 

It  is  white. 

It  is  solid. 

hard. 

porous. 

opaque. 

^ 

absorbent. 

smooth. 

♦""^ 

wholesome, 

stiff. 

. 

.nutritious. 

bright. 

Use. — ^To  nourish. 

LESSON  xxn. 

SALT. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — grarmlous^  sapid, 
^iney  preservative. 


A  HORN.  63 

Qualities  of  Salt. 
It  is  white.  It  is  hard, 

sparkling.  opaque, 

granulous.  soluble, 

sapid,  or  has  a  taste.  fusible, 

salt,  or  saline.  preservative. 

Uses. — ^To  flavor  food ;  to  preserve  from  putrefaction ; 
to  manure  land. 

LESSON  XXI] 

A   HOEN. 

Qualities  of  a  Horn, 
It  is  hard.  It  is  tapering, 

dull.  opaque, 

uneven.  stiff, 

hollow.  yellowish  brown, 

odorous  when  burnt.  fibrous. 

Uses. — ^To  make  combs,  glue,  lanterns ;    handles    to 
knives  and  forks. 

LESSON     XXIV. 

IVORY. 

Qualities  of  Ivory. 
It  is  hard.  It  is  opaque, 

white.  solid, 

smooth.  durable, 

bright. 


W  SECOND  STEP. — ^LESSON   XXV. 

LESSON  XXV. 

▲  PIECE  OF  THE  BARK  OF  THE  OAK  TREE. 

Idea  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — astringent. 


Qualities  of  BarJc. 

is  brown. 

It  is 

5  stiff. 

rough  on  the  outside. 

solid. 

smooth  on  the  inside. 

durable. 

opaque. 

fibrous. 

dry. 

dull. 

inflammable. 

astringent.* 

Uses. — ^To  guard  the  tree  from  injury ;  for  tanning. 
LESSON  XXVL 

AN    UNCUT    LEAD     PENCIL. 

From  this  object  the  children  may  become  acquainted 
with  the  cylinder  ;  for  they  will  not  fail  to  observe  that  the 
ends  are  flat,  and  that  the  other  face  is  curved. 

Idea    to    be  developed  by  this  lesson — cylindrical. 


Parts. 

Qualities. 

The  surface. 

It  is  hard. 

faces. 

odorous. 

ends. 

long. 

*  The  children  may  be  made  to  understand  the  quality  of  astringency, 
by  drawing  their  attention  to  the  contracting  effect  produced  in  the  mouth 
by  eatmg  a  choke  cherry  or  piece  of  alum. 


A   WAX   CANDT.E.                                                66 

Parts, 

Qualities, 

The  lead. 

It  is  solid. 

wood 

opaque. 

inflammable. 

dry. 

brown. 

One  face  is  curved. 

The  ends  are  flat. 

circular. 

The  form  is  cylindrical. 

The  lead  is  gray. 

brittle. 

friable. 

bright. 

Us£S. — For  writing,  drawing,  &c.      Let  the  children 

point  out  on  what 

occasion  a  pencil  is  preferable  to  a  pen, 

and  vice  versa. 

In  this  lesson,  and  others,  the  conceptive  faculty  may 
be  exercised,  by  requiring  the  children  to  recall  to  their 
minds  some  object  in  which  they  had  observed  before  the 
quality  of  inflammability ;  also  that  of  friability. 


LESSON      XXVIL 


A  WAX   CANDLE. 

This  object  recalls  the  idea  of  the  cylinder^  obtained 
in  a  previous  lesson,  and  presents  the  peculiar  parts  of  the 
candle  itself 

Parts.  Qualities. 

The  wick.  It  is  cylinder, 

wax.  hard. 


ee 


SECOND   STEP. LESSON   XXVIH. 


Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  surface. 

It  is  opaque. 

faces. 

yellowish  white. 

ends. 

The  wax  is  sticky. 

edges. 

fusible. 

top. 

The  wick  is  inflammable. 

bottom. 

tough. 

middle. 

white. 

fibrous. 

flexible. 

Use. — ^To  give  light. 

The  children  should  be  asked,  What  must  be  done  be- 
fore the  candle  gives  light  ?  What  becomes  of  the  wick  ? 
What  of  the  wax  ? 

LESSON    XXVIII. 


A  PEN. 

A  pen  presents  many  different  parts  ;  the  qualities  of 
some  of  these  are  opposite  to  the  qualities  of  others. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — angular^  grooved^ 
spongy. 

Parts.  Qualities. 

The  quill.  The  quill  is  transparent, 

shaft.  cylindrical, 

feather.  hollow, 

laminae.  bright, 

pith.  hard, 

nib.  elastic, 

split.  yellowish, 

shoulders.  horny. 


A  PEN. 

Farts. 

Qualities. 

"he  surface. 

The  shaft  is  opaque. 

faces. 

angular. 

skin. 

solid. 

groove. 

white. 

inside. 

stiff. 

outsida 

hard. 

grooved. 

The  pith  is  white. 

spongy. 

porous. 

elastic. 

soft. 

87 


68  THIRD   STEP.— -LESSON 


THIED    STEP. 

INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS    FOR    THE    DIRECTION   OF  THE 
TEACHER. 

In  this  series  the  children  may  be  led  to  the  observation 
of  qualities  which  cannot  be  discerned  merely  by  the  senses. 
Thus  by  showing  them  at  the  same  time  wool  and  woollen 
cloth,  and  questioning  them  as  to  the  difference  of  the 
two,  they  will  readily  conceive  the  ideas  of  natural  and 
artificial.  In  this  manner  they  may  be  led  to  remark  the 
distinction  between  foreign  and  native ;  exotic  and  indi- 
genous;  animal^  vegetable,  mineral,  dtc. 

At  this  Step  the  conceptive  powers  should  be  more  de- 
cidedly called  into  exercise ;  the  way  for  this  is  prepared 
by  the  clearness  and  vividness  of  the  ideas  obtained  through 
the  careful  cultivation  of  perception. 

LESSON    L 

CHALK. 

What  is  this  ?  A  piece  of  chalk.  Where  do  we  get 
chalk  ?  Out  of  the  earth.  What  are  those  places  called 
out  of  which  chalk  is  taken  ?    Chalk  pits.    God  has  placed 


CHALK.  69 

a  great  deal  of  chalk  in  the  earth  in  some  countries,  so  that 
it  rises  up  and  forms  low,  rounded  hills.  Where  have  you 
ever  seen  a  hill  ?  Chalk,  you  say,  comes  out  of  the  earthy 
dug  from  chalk  pits.  Paper,  you  remember,  is  made  by 
man — leather  is  prepared  by  man,  but  chalk  is  neitlier 
made  nor  prepared  by  man  ;  and  it  is  therefore  said  to  be 
a  natural  substance.  Why  is  chalk  said  to  be  natural? 
Because  it  is  neither  made  nor  prepared  by  man. 

Why  do  you  think  that  this  is  chalk?  It  is  white. 
Yes,  chalk  is  white,  but  milk  is  white  also ;  how  then  do 
you  know  chalk  from  milk?  Milk  is  liquid.  Yes,  the 
chalk  does  not  flow  or  form  itself  into  drops ;  it  is  in  a 
solid  lump.  Chalk  is  solido  Why  do  we  call  it  solid? 
Because  it  does  not  form  drops,  but  is  found  in  a  lump. 

Now  look  at  this  lump  of  sugar  ;  this,  like  the  chalk,  is 
white  and  solid ;  how  do  we  know  it  from  the  chalk  ?  It 
is  sparkling.  Yes,  and  the  chalk  is  dull.  Now  you  have 
seen  that  the  chalk  is  white,  solid,  and  dull.  Look  at  it 
again.  We  cannot  see  through  it.  What  then  can  you  say 
of  it  ?  It  is  opaque.  Thus  by  the  sense  of  sight  you  dis- 
cover that  chalk  is  white,  solid,  dull,  and  opaque. 

Now  feel  the  chalk.  It  feels  very  dry.  Rub  it.  It. 
crumbles.  Into  what  condition  does  it  crumble?  That 
of  a  powder.  Chalk  is  dri/  and  crumbling.  What  hap- 
pens when  I  draw  the  chalk  across  the  slate  ?  Some  of  the 
chalk  remains  on  the  slate,  and  leaves  a  mark.  That  is 
because  the  chalk  is  crumbling.  What  quality  of  chalk 
makes  it  useful  to  us  ?  That  of  its  being  crumbling.  Who 
gave  it  this  most  useful  quality  ?  God.  Yes  ;  God,  who 
made  the  chalk,  made  it  of  a  crumbling  nature.  ^ 


70  THIRD   STEP. ^LESSON   U, 

And  now  tell  me  another  sense  by  which  we  find  out  a 
quality,  in  addition  to  those  of  sight  and  touch  ?  The 
sense  of  smell.  Well,  smell  of  the  chalk.  It  has  no  smell ; 
it  is  inodorous.  How  do  you  find  out  that  sugar  is  sweet  ? 
By  tasting  it.  But  as  chalk  is  not  meant  to  be  eaten,  you 
need  not  taste  it,  though  you  may  put  it  to  your  tongue, 
and  tell  me  what  you  observe.  It  sticks  to  the  tongue. 
Yes;  repeat  together:  "  Chalk  sticks  to  the  tongue^ 
Where  have  you  seen  chalk  used?  To  write  on  the 
black  board. 

Now  all  of  you  repeat  everything  you  have  learned, 
about  chalk. 

"  Chalk  is  dug  out  of  chalk  pits.  There  is  so  much 
chalk  in  the  earth  in  some  countries,  that  it  forms  hiUs, 
Chalk  is  a  natural  substance,  of  great  use  to  man.  When 
we  look  at  chalk  we  find  that  it  is  white.,  solid^  dull,  and 
opaque;  by  feeling  it  we  find  that  it  is  dri/  and  sticks  to 
the  tongue  ;  it  is  a*umhling,  and  therefore  useful  for  writiiig 
with ;  it  is  inodorous ;  and  it  is  used  for  writing  on  the 
black  board." 

LESSON  n. 

COAL. 

I  hold  in  my  hand  a  piece  of  a  natural  substance,  and  I 
wish  you  to  tell  me  what  it  is  ?  But  first  tell  me  what  I 
mean  by  a  natural  substance  ?  That  which  is  not  made  by 
man.  The  natural  substance  which  I  hold  in  my  hand  was 
dug  out  of  the  earth  ;  it  is  black,  and  very  useful  to  man  ; 
guess  what  it  is.    Yes,  it  is  a  piece  of  coal.     Why  did  you 


COAL.  VI 

tuink  it  to  be  coal  ?  Because  you  said  that  it  was  black, 
and  that  it  came  out  of  the  earth,  and  was  useful  to  man. 
What  quaUty  of  coal  is  it  which  makes  it  so  useful  to  man? 
Its  being  so  inflammable.  How  is  it  that  this  quaUty  of 
coal  makes  it  so  useful  ?  Because  we  can  cook  our  food, 
and  warm  our  rooms  with  it.  Yes ;  how  sad  it  would  have 
been  last  wmter,  if  there  had  not  been  coals  for  fires.  Who 
made  coals  inflammable  ?  God.  How  very  good  is  our 
Heavenly  Father  in  giving  to  diflferent  things  differing 
quahties,  that  they  may  be  of  varied  use  to  man !  He  has 
caused  some  to  be  liquid,  that  we  may  drink  them  /  some 
to  be  wholesome,  that  we  may  be  nourished  by  them ; 
some  to  be  crumbling,  that  we  may  write  with  them  ;  and 
some  to  be  inflammable,  that  we  may  be  warmed  by  them. 

Now  examine  this  piece  of  coal.  It  is  very  bright,  and 
it  is  opaque.  Repeat  together  :  "  Coal  is  very  bright^  and 
it  is  opaque?''  Feel  it.  It  is  hard,  solid,  and  brittle.  Re- 
peat together:  "Coal  \s  hard^  solid,  brittle.'*^  Sometimes, 
teacher,  there  are  little  bright  yellow  patches  in  the  coal. 
Yes,  those  are  little  bits  of  iron ;  and  we  sometimes  find 
pieces  of  slate  in  the  coal,  and  then  we  say  it  is  not  good,  it 
will  not  burn  well. 

What  use  do  we  make  of  coal  ?  We  cook  our  food  and 
warm  our  rooms  with  it.  What  other  use  is  made  of  coal  ? 
Gas  is  made  from  it.  What  is  the  use  of  gas  ?  To  light 
the  streets.  What  other  use  is  made  of  coal  ?  It  is  used 
in  producing  steam.  What  does  steam  come  from  ?  From 
boiling  water.  What  makes  the  water  boil  so  as  to  be- 
come steam  ?  The  fire.  And  what  makes  the  best  fire  ? 
Coal.     If  we  cannot  get  coal,  what  could  we  use  instead  of 


72  THIRD   STEP. ^LESSON   III. 

it?  Wood.  And  what  must  we  do  to  get  wood?  We 
must  cut  down  our  trees.  Now  repeat  together  your  les- 
son tipon  coal ;  "  Coal  is  a  natural  substance  dug  out  of  the 
earth  /  it  is  very  useful  to  man^  because  it  is  very  inflam- 
mahle.  It  is  blacky  bright^  brittle,  hard^  and  opaque.  It  is 
useful  for  cooking  our  food  and  warming  our  rooms  y  for 
making  gas,  and  producing  steam,  and  also  for  many  other 
purposes." 

LESSON  m. 

A  MATCH. 

Do  you  know  what  this  is  ?  Yes,  teacher,  it  is  a  match. 
Are  matches  found  ready  made  ?  No.  How  do  we  get 
them?  They  are  made  by  some  person.  Tell  me  then 
what  the  different  parts  of  a  match  are.  The  sulphur  and 
the  wood.  And  where  is  the  sulphur  put  ?  At  the  end  of 
the  match.  How  many  ends  has  the  match  ?  Two.  Do 
you  observe  any  other  parts  ?  The  sides.  Then  the  parts 
of  a  match  are,  the  wood,  the  sulphur,  the  ends,  the  sides. 

And  now  tell  me  what  is  sulphur?  Where  does  it 
come  from  ?  It  comes  out  of  the  earth.  Who  can  tell  me 
what  we  call  things  which  are  dug  out  of  the  earth,  but 
which  do  not  grow  out  of  it  ?  Stones.  No ;  we  do  not 
call  everything  dug  out  of  the  earth  stone ;  I  think  some 
of  you  will  recollect  a  very  useful  thing,  which,  though  it 
is  dug  out  of  the  earth,  we  do  not  call  a  stone ;  what  is  it  ^ 
Yes,  coal.  But  you  would  not  call  coal  a  stone,  would 
you,  or  sulphur  ?  No ;  but  everything  that  is  dug  out  of 
the  earth  may  be  called  a  mineral.  What  then  is  a  min- 
eral ?    And  now  tell  me  what  sulphur  is.     It  ii  a  mineral 


A   MATCH.  73 

Why  is  sulphur  said  to  be  a  mineral  ?  Name  any  other 
minerals  you  know. 

Now  look  carefully  at  the  sulphur,  and  tell  me  some- 
thing about  it.  It  is  yellow.  Yes ;  all  of  you  repeat  to- 
gether :  "  Sulphur  is  yellowP  See,  I  put  some  of  it  to  a 
lighted  candle.  It  is  on  fire.  What  do  you  say  those 
things  are  that  readily  take  fire  ?  They  are  inflammable. 
Sulphur  is  inflammable.  Did  you  notice  anything  more  in 
the  sulphur  when  it  took  fire  ?  The  flame  was  very  blue. 
Repeat :  "  Sulphur  burns  with  a  hlae  flameP  I  think  you 
can  find  out  something  more  by  my  having  set  the  sulphur 
on  fire.  It  gives  off  a  very  unpleasant  smell.  What  are 
those  things  called  tliat  give  out  a  smell?  Sulphur  is  odov' 
ous.  By  what  did  you  find  out  that  sulphur  was  odorous? 
By  the  nose.  What  use  did  you  make  of  your  noses  then? 
We  smelled  with  them.  By  what  did  you  find  out  that  sul- 
phur was  yellow  ?  By  the  eye.  What  use  did  you  make 
of  your  eyes  then  ?  We  saw  w^ith  them.  There  is  some- 
thing more  that  the  fire  does  to  the  sulphur ;  what  is  it  ? 
The  fire  melts  it.  Repeat :  "  Sulphur  melts  w^hen  heated." 
What  is  the  quality  that  makes  sulphur  useful  to  us  ?  Its 
being  inflammable. 

Of  what  is  the  greater  part  of  this  match  made  ?  Of 
wood.  You  have  told  me  that  sulphur  is  a  mineral,  be- 
cause it  is  found  in  the  earth  ;  now  what  is  wood  ?  It  is  a 
'vegetable.  Yes ;  all  repeat  together :  "  Wood  is  vegetable:^ 
What  is  it  taken  from  ?  A  tree.  What  kind  of  wood  is 
this  ?  It  is  pine.  Yes  ;  and  here  is  a  picture  of  the  pine 
tree. 

Now  examine  this  piece  of  wood,  and  tell  me  something 
4 


74  THIRD   ST£P. LESSON  III. 

about  it.  It  is  hard ;  it  is  dry ;  it  is  opaque ;  in  color  it  is 
yellowish  white.  Repeat  these  qualities  of  wood  all  to- 
gether: "Pine  wood  is  hard,  dry,  opaque,  dull;  the  color 
is  yellowish  white."  Now  I  will  put  a  bit  of  it  to  the  flame 
of  this  candle.  It  has  taken  fire :  it  is  inflammable.  What 
difierence  did  you  observe  between  the  sulphur  and  wood 
when  put  into  the  flame  ?  The  sulj^hur  took  fire  sooner, 
and  burned  with  a  blue  flame.  Yes ;  and  it  also  melted 
into  drops ;  but  what  does  wood  become  when  it  has  been 
burned  ?  It  becomes  ashes.  Now  think  a  little  and  try  to 
find  out  why  both  sulphur  and  wood  are  required  in  ordei 
to  make  a  good  match  ?  The  sulphur  is  used  in  a  matcr 
because  it  takes  fire  so  quickly.  And  what  of  the  wood  ? 
How  long  did  the  sulphur  burn  ?  It  burned  but  a  very 
short  time.  It  would  not  burn  long  enough  to  enable  any 
one  to  light  a  candle  or  fire  from  it ;  but  the  wood  burns  a 
much  longer  time ;  so  we  have  the  sulphur  because  it  takes 
fire  quickly,  and  sets  fire  to  the  wood ;  and  the  wood,  be- 
cause it  bums  much  longer,  and  enables  us  to  Ught  a  fire  or 
candle  without  hurry. 

Now  you  shall  repeat  all  you  have  said  about  the  match, . 
"  A  match  is  made  of  wood  and  sulphur.  The  sulphur  is 
placed  at  one  end ;  it  is  a  mineral  substayice^  and  comes  out 
of  the  earth  ;  it  is  yellow  ;  it  is  very  inflammable^  burning 
with  a  blue  flame  ;  it  also  melts  inflre^  and  is  very  odorous. 
Wood  is  a  vegetable  substance^  and  comes  from  a  tree  called 
a  pine  tree.  The  wood  is  inflammable^  but  it  does  not  bum 
SLway  so  fast  as  the  sulphur;  it  burns  to  ashes  ;  its  color  is 
yellowish  white  ;  it  is  hardj  dry,  dull,  and  opaqugj'^ 


A    ROSE    LEAF.  7S 


LESSON    IV. 


A   HOSE  LEAF. 


What  is  this?  It  is  a  leaf.  Where  are  leaves  found? 
On  plants  and  trees.  What  leaves  do  cows  and  horses  eat  ? 
Those  of  the  grass.  What  leaves  do  we  sometimes  eat  ? 
Cabbage  leaves  and  spinach,  &c.  Do  you  know  a  word  by 
which  you  can  at  once  speak  of  trees,  and  grass,  and  cab- 
bages ?  What  is  one  of  the  largest  vegetables  you  have 
ever  seen  ?  An  elm  tree.  Tell  me  the  name  of  a  smaller 
one.  Wheat.  Tell  me  of  one  we  often  eat.  Lettuce. 
What  are  all  these  called  ?  Vegetables.  Where  do  vege- 
tables come  from  ?  They  grow  out  of  the  ground.  If  I 
had  a  piece  of  land  without  any  vegetables  growing  upon 
it,  what  must  I  do  to  raise  some  ?  You  must  sow  some 
seed  in  it.  Where  must  I  put  the  seed  ?  In  the  earth. 
If  I  were  to  sow  some  grass  seed,  what  would  follow  ? 
Some  grass  would  spring  up.  And  what  would  it  be  at 
first  ?  Very  small.  If  it  were  healthy,  would  it  continue 
so  small  ?  No.  What  would  it  do  ?  It  would  grow.  If 
I  were  to  put  an  acorn  in  the  ground,  what  would  happen  ? 
A  little  root  would  burst  out  of  it  and  go  down  into  the 
groundj  and  a  little  green  shoot  would  come  up  and  put  out 
some  little  leaves.  Yes,  and  at  first  it  would  be  very  small; 
but  it  would  grow,  so  that  in  many  years  it  would  become 
a  great  oak.  But  would  the  same  occur  if  I  buried  a  piece 
of  flint  or  coal  in  the  earth  ?  No.  These  do  not  grow 
out  of  the  earth  as  vegetables  do. 

Now  you  know  the  difference  between  a  mineral  and  a 


16  THIRD   STEP. — ^LESSON  IV. 

vegetable.  Look  at  this  leaf,  and  tell  me  its  different  parts. 
By  what  part  do  I  hold  it  ?  The  stalk.  What  does  the 
stalk  bear  ?  The  leaf.  The  stalk  that  bears  a  leaf  is  called 
the  leaf  stalk :  what  is  this  ?  A  leaf  stalk.  Find  out  some 
of  the  parts  of  the  leaf.  The  edge.  Here  are  two  leaves, 
one  from  a  rose  tree,  the  other  from  the  plant  on  which  the 
lily  grows ;  what  difference  do  you  observe  in  the  edges  of 
them  ?  The  rose  leaf  has  little  points,  which  the  lily  leaf 
has  not.  Yes ;  the  points  are  called  teeth,  because  they  are 
like  the  sharp  pointed  teeth  of  some  animals ;  and  an  edge^ 
that  has  such  points,  is  said  to  be  toothed.  What  is  this 
edge  ?  It  is  toothed.  Why  is  it  said  to  be  toothed  ?  Be- 
cause it  has  points  like  the  teeth  of  some  animals. 

Find  out  some  other  parts  of  this  leaf.  There  is  a  line 
down  the  middle  of  it.  Yes ;  that  line  is  called  the  mid- 
rib. See  whether  the  midrib  is  the  same  on  both  sides  of 
the  leaf.  It  sinks  in  on  one  side  and  stands  out  on  the 
other.  Which  of  you  can  tell  me  what  they  call  the  hol- 
low line  made  by  the  plough  in  a  ploughed  field  ?  A  fur- 
row. And  what  do  they  call  the  raised  part  on  each  side 
of  it  ?  A  ridge.  What  is  the  midrib  like  on  this  side  of 
the  leaf?  A  furrow.  And  on  this  side  it  is  like  a  ridge, 
Now  you  see  there  are  two  sides  or  surfaces  to  the 
leaf;  by  what  names  would  you  distinguish  them  ?  When 
the  luaf  is  on  the  tree,  which  side  is  uppermost  ?  This, 
therefore,  is  called  the  upper  side  /  and  what  would  you 
call  the  other  ?  The  under  side.  Look  carefully  at  the 
leaf  again.  There  are  other  lines  upon  it.  Where  do  these 
lines  spring  from  ?  From  the  midrib.  And  where  do  they 
end  ?    In  the  edge.    These  lines  are  called  the  veins  /  in 


A   EOSE   LEAF.  77 

what  are  they  like  the  midrib  ?  They  sink  in  like  furrows 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  and  rise  up  like  ridges  on  the 
under  surface  of  it.  Do  you  see  any  other  part.  The  end. 
The  point  or  end  is  opposite  to  the  stalk. 

Now  tell  me  some  of  the  qualities  of  the  leaf;  what  can 
you  say  of  it  ?  It  is  green  ;  it  is  rather  bright.  Look 
again,  and  see  if  both  sides  are  bright.  No  ;  the  under  side 
is  dull.  Here^are  several  leaves ;  what  difference  do  you 
observe  in  their  upper  and  under  surfaces?  The  upper 
surface  is  the  brighter.  Feel  of  the  rose  leaf.  It  is  thin  ; 
it  is  soft.  Anything  more  ?  It  bends  easily.  What  do 
you  say  of  a  thing  which  bends  easily  ?  It  is  pliable. 
What  can  you  then  say  of  this  leaf?  It  is  pliable.  What 
more  do  you  notice  when  you  feel  of  it  ?  It  is  light  and 
smooth.  What  is  its  shape  ?  It  is  round.  (The  teacher 
draws  a  correct  circle  on  the  black  board.)  What,  is  it 
like  this  in  shape  ?  No,  not  quite  I  will  dravv  the  shape 
of  an  Ggg ;  which  is  it  more  like  ?  It  is  more  like  the 
shape  of  the  eg^.  We  call  the  shape  of  an  Qgg  oval ; 
what  would  you  say  is  the  shape  of  this  leaf?     It  is  oval. 

Now  you  must  let  me  hear  you  all  together  repeat  the 
heads  of  this  lesson  on  the  rose  leaf.  "  A  rose  leaf  is  a  veg- 
etable substance  ;  it  grows  on  a  leaj  stalk  ;  it  has  a  toothed 
edge  ;  it  has  a  midrib^  which  is  like  a  farroio  on  the  up2)er 
side,  and  like  a  ridge  on  the  under  side  ;  it  has  also  many 
veins,  which  are  like  furrows  on  the  upper  side,  and  like 
ridges  on  the  under  side.  Its  color  is  green  ;  its  shape  is 
oval.  To  the  touch  it  is  thin,  soft^  smooth  /  it  is  pliable  ; 
the  upper  side  is  rather  bright,  and  the  under  side  is  dulV 


V8  THIRD   STEP. ^LESSON   V. 


LESSON     V 


HONEY   COMB. 


What  is  this  ?  A  piece  of  honey  comb.  Where  does 
it  come  from  ?  A  bee  hive.  Who  placed  it  in  the  hive  ? 
The  bees  made  it  there.  Can  you  tell  me  how  the  bees 
made  it?  No,  I  am  sure  you  cannot.  iThey  have  no 
hands,  nor  tools,  yet  see  how  beautifully  it  is  made ;  not 
one  of  you  could  form  such  a  piece  of  comb.  Where  did 
the  bees  learn  how  to  make  the  comb  ?  Yes  ;  God  taught 
them,  and  enabled  them  to  do  it  well.  He  has  taught  all 
animals  to  do  whatever  is  necessary  to  their  comfort.  Now 
look  at  the  honey  comb,  and  tell  me  what  you  see.  It  is 
full  of  holes.  The  holes  are  called  cells.  What  parts  do 
you  see  in  the  cells  ?  What  do  we  call  that  part  of  this 
room  in  which  the  windows  are,  and  where  the  door  is  ? 
The  sides.  Well,  see  what  the  cells  have  ?  They  have 
sides.  Count  how  many  sides  each  cell  has.  Yes  ;  each  cell 
has  six  sides.  Look  again  at  the  room,  and  tell  me  what 
you  call  those  parts  of  it  in  which  the  sides  meet  each  other. 
The  corners.  And  what  has' 'each  cell  ?  It  has  corners. 
How  many  corners  has  each  cell  ? — count  them.  Six.  Re- 
peat :  "  Each  cell  has  six  corners^  When  you  look  into 
the  cell,  what  part  of  it  do  you  see?  The  bottom,  or  floor 
of  it.  And  what  is  the  other  end  called  ?  The  top.  What 
is  there  round  the  top  ?     An  edge. 

Now  try  to  find  out  some  qualities  of  the  honey  comb ; 
you  may  take  it  in  your  fingers.  It  is  very  light  and  sticky. 
Now  look  at  it.    It  is  dull.     It  is  yellow.    Hold  it  up 


HONEY   COMB.  79 

to  the  light.  Is  it  transparent,  or  is  it  quite  opaque? 
What  do  you  observe?  We  see  the  light  through  it. 
When  you  see  light  through  a  substance  it  is  said  to  be 
translucent.  Why  is  this  honey  comb  said  to  be  translu- 
cent ?  Because  we  can  see  the  light  through  it.  Now 
look  at  it  as  I  press  it  in  my  fingoi-s.  I  have  crushed  it ; 
it  is  brittle.  Now  I  put  it  into  the  flame  of  a  candle ;  it 
melts.  When  does  it  melt  ?  When  it  is  heated.  It  is 
fusible. 

What  use  does  the  bee  make  of  the  cells  ?  It  stores  up 
honey  in  them.  And  where  does  the  bee  get  the  honey  ? 
From  flowers.  Yes;  in  summer  the  bee  collects  honey, 
which  it  stores  up  in  some  of  the  cells ;  but  it  also  uses 
others  of  the  cells  for  another  purpose;  the  young  bees  are 
kept  in  them,  and  these  are  fed  and  watched  by  the  old 
bees  till  they  get  their  wings,  and  then  they  fly,  and  begin 
to  work  themselves.  And  what  do  we  make  of  the  honey 
comb  ?  We  melt  it  down  into  wax.  And  what  use  do  we 
make  of  the  wax?  We  make  candles  of  wax.  Yes;  and 
we  rub  furniture  with  it,  to  make  it  bright.  I  should  think 
that  some  of  you  have  seen  wax  used  for  other  purposes  be- 
side these.  Yes,  teacher,  my  mother  uses  it.  What  does 
she  use  wax  for  ?  She  rubs  her  thread  with  it  to  make  it 
firm  and  strong.  Now  repeat  all  you  know  about  the  honey 
comb.  "  Honey  comb  is  made  by  hees^  who  put  into  it  the 
honey  they  get  from,  flowers.  It  is  formed  of  a  number  of 
little  cells^  each  of  which  has  six  sides,  and  six  corners,  a 
bottom,  or  floor,  and  a  to2:>  with  an  edge.  Wax  is  very 
light,  thin,  and  sticky  /  its  color  is  light  yellow  ;  it  is  dull  / 
it  is  transluce7it ;  it  is  brittle,  and  melts  when  heated.     We 


80  THIRD   STEP. LESSON   VI. 

use  it  to  make  candles  and  to  polish  furniture  y  it  is  used 
to  strengthen  thread.^"* 

LESSON    VI. 

A   BUTTERFLY. 

What  is  this  ?  It  is  a  butterfly.  What  is  a  butterfly  ? 
An  insect.  What  is  an  insect  ?  It  is  neither  a  vegetable 
nor  a  mineral ;  it  is  an  cmimal.  Now  examine  the  butterfly, 
and  tell  me  its  different  parts.  It  has  wings.  How  many 
wings  has  a  butterfly  ?  Four.  Wliat  difference  do  you 
observe  in  these  four  wings  ?  Two  of  them  are  large  and 
two  are  small.  What  can  it  do  with  its  wings  ?  It  can  fly. 
Where  are  the  wings  placed?  Two  on  each  side  of  the 
body.  In  what  position  are  the  wings  when  the  insect  is 
flying  ?  Are  they  in  the  direction  of  the  walls  of  the  room, 
or  of  the  ceiling  ?  They  are  in  the  direction  of  the  ceil- 
ing.* In  what  other  direction  does  the  butterfly  some- 
times place  its  wings  ?  It  sometimes  puts  them  upright, 
so  that  they  touch  each  other  ;  but  when  it  flies  they  are 
always  spread  open.  If  you  had  a  piece  Of  thin  paper, 
which  you  wished  to  float  on  the  air,  would  you  roll  it  up, 
or  spread  it  out  ?  I  should  spread  it  out.  Yes ;  then  the 
air  would  support  it.  What  does  the  butterfly  do  that  is 
like   this  ?  f    It  opens  its  wings  and  spreads  them  out. 

*  If  the  children  have  learned  the  difference  between  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  position,  they  may  here  apply  their  knowledge. 

f  The  youngest  children  should  be  led  to  the  observation  of  facts. 
The  reasoning  upon  thciu,  and  drawing  conclusions  from  them,  is  the  work 
of  a  later  period. 


A   BUTTEEFLT.  81 

What  more  do  you  observe  in  the  butterfly's  wings? 
They  are  beautifully  marked.  See,  I  rub  the  wings  with 
my  finger.  What  do  you  perceive  ?  The  color  comes  off. 
There  is  a  kind  of  down  upon  the  wings  which  is  easily 
rubbed  off.  Repeat  together  :  "  The  butterfly  has  four 
wings^  two  of  them  are  large  and  two  small.  They  are 
placed  on  either  side  of  the  body.  When  it  flies  the  wings 
are  spread  out;  when  at  rest,  they  are  often  upright. 
They  are  covered  with  beautifully  colored  down.,  which  is 
very  easily  rubbed  off.'''' 

Now  what  other  part  do  you  observe  in  the  butterfly  ? 
The  legs.  How  many  legs  has  a  butterfly  ?  It  has  six 
legs.  Where  are  they  placed  ?  Underneath  the  body. 
What  can  the  butterfly  do  with  its  legs  ?  It  can  walk. 
Does  it  use  them  much  in  walking  ?  No.  AYhat  do  you 
generally  see  a  butterfly  doing  ?  Flying  about.  And 
when  it  is  not  flying,  what  is  it  doing?  It  is  standing. 
What  does  it  stand  upon  ?  Its  legs.  When  we  ourselves 
walk  or  move  along  we  bend  our  legs  ;  what  do  we  call 
that  part  where  the  lag  bends?  We  cafl  it  a  joint.  And 
what  can  the  butterfly  do  with  its  legs  ?  It  can  bend 
them.  What  then  must  it  have  upon  its  legs  ?  Joints. 
Repeat  together  what  you  know  of  the  butterfly's  legs : 
"The  butterfly  has  six  legs  placed  under  its  body ;  the 
legs  have  Joi?its  /  it  uses  its  legs  chiefly  to  stand  upon?'' 

Now  find  out  another  part  of  the  butterfly.  Its  body. 
What  sort  of  a  bodylias  it  ?  It  is  long  and  small.  You 
may  call  it  slender.  Where  is  the  body  placed  ?  Be- 
tween the  wings.  What  more  do  you  observe  in  it  ?  It 
is  covered  with  hairs.  Repeat  together  :  "  The  body  of  the 
4* 


82  TUIKD   STEP. LESSON    VI. 

butterfly  is  slender  and  covered  with  hairs ;  it  is  placed 
between  its  wings?'* 

What  other  part  do  you  see  ?  The  head.  And  what 
has  the  butterfly  upon  its  head  ?  It  has  horns.  How 
many  ?  Two.  What  sort  of  horns  are  they  ?  They  are 
long.  And  what  more  ?  Fine.  What  do  you  observe  as 
to  the  ends  of  these  ?  They  are  thick.  The  horns  of 
the  butterfly  always  end  in  thick  knobs.  What  more  do 
you  see  on  the  head  ?  Eyes.  How  many  ?  Two.  What 
is  the  use  of  the  eyes  ?  They  are  to  see  with.  Look 
again  at  the  head ;  there  are  some  things  that  stick  out. 
These  are  called  feelers ;  most  insects  have  four  feelers. 
Look,  here  is  something  which  I  draw  out  from  between 
the  feelers.  What  is  it  like  ?  It  is  like  a  rolled  up  hair. 
This  is  the  butterfly's  mouth,  and  it  is  called  a  trunk. 
Which  of  you  can  tell  me  what  butterflies  feed  upon  ? 
Honey.  And  w^here  do  they  find  honey?  In  flowers. 
Yes ;  generally  at  the  bottom  of  the  flowers.  Could  they 
get  at  it  if  they  had  mouths  like  yours  and  mine  ?  No. 
What  then  is  the  particular  use  of  such  a  m"mith  as  this  to 
a  butterfly  ?  To  get  at  the  honey  at  the  bottom  of  the 
flowers.  Yes,  the  butterfly  darts  its  trunk  into  the  flowers, 
and  as  it  is  hollow,  it  can  suck  up  the  sweet  honey  through 
it.  What  pleasure  you  will  now  have  in  observing  a  but- 
terfly, and  in  thinking  that  God  has  given  it  just  such  a 
mouth  as  an  insect  which  feeds  on  honey  needs,  while  ours 
is  the  best  for  us  !  Now  repeat  together  the  names  of  the 
parts  of  the  butterfly's  head :  "  The  butterfly  has  two  eyes 
on  its  head^  and  two  horns^  which  are  long^  each  ending  in 
a  knob.    It  has  four  feelers  /   between   two  of  which  ig 


A   BUTTEKFLY  83 

placed  its  mouthy  which  is  a  long  curled-up  trunJc  y  it  darts 
this  trunk  into  flowers  to  get  at  the  honey P 

The  children's  remarks  upon  the  color  and  marks  of  the 
butterfly  must  be  determined  by  the  particular  species  of 
that  brought  before  them.  The  teacher  should  lead  them 
to  admire  its  beauty,  and  to  observe  the  happy  life  it  seems 
to  lead,  and  then  draw  attention  to  the  sin  of  teasing  a  little 
creature  which  God  has  formed  to  be  happy,  and  of  injur- 
ing that  which  God  has  made  so  beautiful.  No  opportu- 
nity should  be  lost  of  endeavoring  to  counteract  that  pro- 
pensity to  cruelty  which  is  so  common  in  children ;  this 
evil  disposition  springs  generally  from  a  love  of  showing 
power ;  they  should  therefore  be  encouraged  to  exercise 
any  power  God  may  have  bestowed,  in  increasing  the  hap- 
pntess  of  all  His  creatures.  They  should  .be  early  trained 
to  feel  that  they  are  accountable  for  every  faculty  they 
possess,  even  for  their  power  over  the  most  insignificant 
insect. 

In  what  kind  of  weather  do  butterflies  come  out  ?  In 
fine  sunshiny  weather.  How  do  they  employ  themselves  ? 
In  flying  about  and  gathering  honey.  Would  it  be  right 
in  us  to  imitate  the  butterfly  ?  No ;  because  God  has 
given  us  all  work  to  do,  and  tells  us  in  His  Word  to  be  as 
industrious  as  the  ant.  The  life  of  the  butterfly  is  short,  it 
needs  but  to  provide  for  the  present  day ;  but  we  should 
labor  while  we  have  youth  and  strength,  that  we  may  not 
be  a  burden  to  others  when  we  become  old. 

Now  repeat  together  all  that  we  have  said  of  the  but- 
terfly. "  The  butterfly  is  an  insefit :  it  has  four  wings^  two 
of  which  are  large  and  two  are  small ;  when  it  flies  these 


84  THIRD    STEP. LESSON    VII. 

are  sjyread  out  y  they  are  covered  with  beautiful  down^ 
which  is  easily  nibbed  off :  between  the  wings  is  the  hody.^ 
which  is  long  and  slender^  and  covered  with  soft  hairs ; 
under  its  body  are  six  legs^  which  hawQ  joints  /  it  does  not 
use  its  legs  much  in  walking^  bat  chiefly  in  standing :  upon 
the  head  there  are  two  loiig  horns^  with  knobs  at  the  end ; 
two  eyes ;  four  feelers ;  between  two  of  the  feelers  is 
placed  the  mouthy  which  is  a  long^  hollow  trunk,  curled  up 
when  not  in  use ;  it  darts  this  trunk  into  flowers^  to  get  at 
the  honey ^  upon  which  it  feeds." 

LESSON    VII. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Here  are  the  four  objects  upon  which  you  have  had  les- 
sons this  week.  What  are  they  ?  A  match,  a  leaf,  a  piece 
of  honey  comb,  and  a  butterfly.  Which  of  these  is  made 
by  man  ?  The  match.  What  things  must  the  person  have 
who  would  make  a  match  ?  Suljihur  and  wood.  What 
kind  of  a  substance  is  sulphur?  It  is  a  mineral  substance. 
And  what  is  wood  ?  It  is  a  vegetable  substance.  Upon 
what  other  vegetable  substance  have  you  had  a  lesson  ?  A 
leaf  Are  the  leaf  and  the  wood  whole  vegetables  ?  No ; 
they  are  but  parts  of  vegetables.  The  butterfly  is  a  whole 
animal.  Tell  me  the  name  of  another  animal.  A  dog.  I 
will  write  the  names  of  these  two  animals  on  the  board — 
butterfly,  dog.  Now,  tell  me  the  names  of  two  whole  veg' 
etables,  that  I  may  write  them  down  also.  A  rose  tree, 
wheat.  Now  of  two  minerals.  Sulphur  and  flint.  We 
have  now  two  animals^  two  vegetables^  and  two  minerals. 


EECAPITULATIOX.  85 

Now  tell  me  what  can  the  butterfly  do  ?  It  can  fly.* 
What  can  the  dog  do  ?  It  can  run.  Can  the  dog  fly,  or 
the  butterfly  run  ?  No.  But  can  you  not  find  out  some- 
thing that  we  can  say  is  done  by  both  of  them,  when  the 
one  flies  and  the  other  runs  ?  They  both  move.  In  what 
manner  does  the  butterfly  move  ?  It  flies  from  flower  to 
flower.  Whom  does  the  butterfly  please  in  thus  flying  from 
flower  to  flower  ?  Itself  The  butterfly  flies  about  when- 
ever it  pleases.  And  when  the  dog  runs  about  or  lies  down 
to  sleep,  whom  is  he  pleasing  ?  Himself.  Then  the  dog 
moves  about  whenever  he  pleases  ;  what  then  can  you  say 
that  both  these  animals  do?  They  move  about  as  they 
please. 

But  now  think  a  little  about  these  vegetables,  and  tell 
me  how  in  this  respect  they  differ  from  the  animals.  The 
vegetables  cannot  move  about.  Did  you  never  see  a  tree 
move  ?  Yes  ;  when  the  wind  blows.  In  what  then  is  its 
moving  difierent  from  the  moving  of  an  animal  ?  The  ani- 
mal moves  about  when  and  where  it  likes,  but  the  tree  does 
not  move  from  place  to  place ;  its  branches  move  when  the 
wind  blows  them.  But  think  what  vegetables  do.  If  I 
wished  to  have  a  crop  of  wheat  in  my  field,  what  must  I  do  ? 
Sow  some  seed.  Yes ;  I  must  put  the  little  seed  into  the 
ground  ;  and  what  then  ?  It  Avill  spring  up.  And  what 
will  it  become  at  last  ?  Wheat.  Yes ;  a  plant  of  wheat 
with  a  stem^  and  leaves^  and  a  head.  But  what  must  have 
happened  to  the  vegetable  when,  from  being  a  little  seed, 

*  Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  anticipate  the  exact  answers  of  children, 
but  the  points  here  dwelt  upon  are  those  to  which  the  teacher  should  direct 
observation  by  questions. 


86  THIED   STEP. — LESSON  VIII. 

it  has  become  a  large  plant  ?  It  must  have  grown.  What 
then  do  vegetables  do?  They  grow.  Yes;  vegetables 
grow.  Do  animals  also  grow?  Yes.  Tell  me  how  you 
know  that  animals  grow.  We  had  a  little  kitten,  which  is 
now  a  great  cat.  What  can  you  say  of  animals?  That 
they  grow,  and  move  about  where  they  please.  What  can 
you  say  of  vegetables  ?     That  they  grow. 

But  now  think  about  minerals ;  supposing  I  put  this 
piece  of  flint  into  the  ground,  as  I  might  a  seed ;  if  I  came 
in  a  fortnight,  might  I  expect  to  see  any  part  of  it  above 
the  earth  ?  No.  Why  not  ?  If  I  had  put  in  a  seed  I 
should  expect  to  see  a  little  shoot  coming  up.  Yes ;  be- 
cause the  vegetable  grows,  but  the  mineral  does  not  grow. 
Well,  then,  you  have  found  out  that  animals  grow,  and  move 
about  as  they  please  /  vegetables  grow  /  minerals  neither 
grow  nor  move  from  place  to  place. 

LESSON  vm. 

SKETCH   OF   A   LESSON   ON  THE  MASSACRE   OF  THE  CHILDREN 
OF  BHTHLEHEM. 

Intended  for  Children  of  nine  or  ten  years  of  age. 

L  Picture  examined. — Get  the  children  to  examine  the 
picture,  telling  what  they  see  ;  as,  a  man,  a  woman,  a  child. 
The  man  looks  strong  and  fierce,  holds  a  knife  or  dagger  in 
one  hand,  a  child  in  the  other  by  one  of  its  legs.  The  in- 
fant seems  frightened ;  its  mouth  is  open ;  it  is  crying.  The 
woman  is  kneeling  at  the  feet  of  the  man,  stretching  out 
her  arras  toward  the  child ;  she  looks  frightened  and  im- 


MASSACRE    OF    THE    CHILDREN    OP    BETHLEHEM.  87 

ploring.  What  does  this  mean?  What  does  it  appear  the 
man  is  about  to  do  with  the  infant  ?  Why  is  the  woman  so 
imploring  ? 

Thus  introduced,  endeavor  to  make  the  children  picture 
to  themselves  the  distressing  scene  recorded  in  Matthew  ii, 
16-18;  how  wretched  the  poor  mothers  must  have  been  to 
see  their  helpless  infants  torn  from  them,  and  murdered  be- 
fore their  eyes,  by  brutal  men  sent  for  that  purpose — and 
probably  in  every  house  a  murder;  expressed  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Jeremiah,  ''lamentation,  and  weeping,  and  great 
mourning." 

II.  Narrative  told. — Here  read  or  detail  to  the  children 
the  circumstances  that  led  to  this  general  massacre  of  poor 
unoffending  babes ;  questioning  them,  to  ascertain  that  they 
are  following  the  teacher.  The  wise  men's  visit — they  apply 
to  Herod  for  information  as  to  the  birthplace  of  the  King  of 
Israel,  who  hears  them  with  astonishment — he  consults  tho 
scribes,  who  point  out  Bethlehem  as  the  place  of  Messiah's 
birth — he  is  moved  with  jealousy,  fearing  that  his  throne 
will  be  taken  from  him — under  a  mask  of  hypocrisy  he  di- 
rects the  wise  men  to  find  out  the  new-bom  Prince,  and 
requests  them  to  return  to  him  with  tidings,  that  he  may 
go  and  worship  Him  also — an  angel  tells  them  to  return  to 
their  own  country  another  way — Herod's  disappointment — 
he  orders  the  slaughter  of  all  the  children  of  a  certain  age, 
both  in  Bethlehem  and  the  neighborhood,  that  among  them 
the  .  Saviour  might  fall — with  fearful  exactness  his  com- 
mands were  carried  out — an  example  of  which  we  see  in  the 
picture  before  us. 

III.  Gods  Providence. — Lead  the  children  to  coi^sidei 


88  THIRD    STEP. LESSON  VIII. 

how  God  overruled  Herod's  wicked  design,  and  preserved 
the  infant  Jesus.  What  did  Herod  think  he  had  done  ? 
Defeated  the  indications  of  the  star,  and  accompUshed  his 
own  will  in  opposition  to  that  of  the  Almighty.  But  had 
he  done  so  ?  Remark  that  whatever  crafty,  cruel  devices 
were  in  his  heart,  the  counsel  of  the  Lord  must  stand. 
This  event  formed  another  accomplishment  of  the  words 
of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xxxi,  15-17).  Thus,  also,  the 
date  of  Christ's  birth  was  publicly  marked,  and  all  others 
who  could  have  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah,  as  having 
been  born  at  Bethlehem  about  the  same  time,  were  cut  off. 
Load  the  children  next  to  see  that  Joseph  knew  neither  the 
danger  the  Child  was  in,  nor,  if  he  had  known  it,  was  he 
aware  of  any  way  to  escape  ;  but  an  angel  appears  and 
tells  him  of  both.  **Take  the  young  Child  by  night,  and 
flee  into  Egypt."  Thus  the  inflxnt  Jesus  was  rescued. 
How  vain  is  it  for  man  to  contend  against  the  Almighty ! 

IV.  Practical  application. — ^Direct  the  children,  by 
questions,  to  observe  the  main  ideas  in  the  preceding  parts 
of  the  lesson,  and  to  make  a  threefold  apphcation:  1st, 
What  the  cruelty  of  Herod  suggests.  2d,  What  the  work- 
ings of  God's  providence.  3il,  The  preservation  of  the  in- 
fant Jesus. 

1st.  From  the  cruelty  of  Herod  we  learn  to  what 
lengths  wicked  men  will  go  when  they  give  way  to  evil 
passions,  and  how  guarded  we  should  be  against  envy  and 
jealousy. 

2d.  From  the  working  of  God's  overruling  providence, 
we  see  how  He  can  thwart  and  baffle  the  wicked  designs 
of  men,  and  make  their  wrath  to  praise  Him.     But  can  tho 


A   QUILL.  88 

Messiah,  Who  is  to  be  the  consolation  of  Israel,  be  intro- 
duced with  all  this  lamentation  ?  Yes ;  1st,  for  so  it  was 
foretold ;  and  2d,  if  we  look  further,  we  shall  find  that  the 
weeping  in  Ramah  was  but  a  forerunner  to  the  greatest 
joy;  for  it  follows:  "Thy  work  shall  be  rewarded,  and 
there  is  hope  in  thy  end ; "  "  Unto  them  a  child  was  born," 
sufficient  to  repair  their  losses. 

3d.  From  the  preservation  of  the  Saviour,  we  learn  the 
security  of  God's  people,  which  may  be  also  seen  in  the 
case  of  David,  who  said :  "  I  will  not  be  afraid  of  ten 
thousands  of  people  that  have  set  themselves  against  me 
round  about." 


LESSON  IX 

A   QUILL. 

This  subject  is 

taken  as  it  brings  up  many  terms  pre- 

viously  developed. 

Parts, 

( 

Qualities. 

The  quill. 

It 

is  long. 

shaft. 

stiff. 

ends. 

useful. 

feather. 

natural. 

laminae. 

animal  substance 

inside. 

The  barrel 

is  transparent. 

outside. 

hard. 

groove. 

elastic. 

surface. 

bright. 

faces. 

yellowish. 

pith. 

cylindrical. 

skin. 

hollow, 
light. 

The  shaft 

is  feathered. 

90  THIBD   STEP. LESSON   X. 

QualUies, 
The  shaft  is  white, 
stiflf. 
hard, 
opaque, 
solid, 
angular, 
grooved. 

Children  may  be  led  to  remark  the  difference  which  fire 
produces  on  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  both  as  to 
appearance  and  smell. 

The  t  iacher  now  requires  the  class  to  give  an  explana^ 
tion  in  their  own  words  of  the  terms  they  have  used. 


LESSON    X. 

A 

PENNY. 

Idea  to  be  developed  in 

L  this  lesson — metallic. 

Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  surface. 

It  is  round. 

faces. 

flat. 

edges. 

mineral. 

milling. 

metallic. 

impression. 

opaque. 

image. 

bright. 

superscription. 

reddish  white. 

date. 

fusible. 

hard. 

artificial.* 

heavy. 

durable. 

uneven. 

*  The  class  should  be  led  to  remark  that,  though  the  workmanship  ia 
artiSciaL  the  substance  is  natural. 


MUST^ED   SEED. 


91 


LESSON    XI. 

MTISTAKD  SEED. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — indigenous^  pul- 

verable^  spherical. 

Qualities. 


t  is  pungent. 

It 

is  dull. 

yellow. 

opaque. 

hard. 

dry. 

pulverable. 

natural. 

indigenous. 

vegetable. 

spherical. 

solid. 

stimulating. 

LESSON    XII. 

AN    APPLE. 

Idea  to  be  developed- 

—membranaceous. 

( 

Qualities. 

It  is  spherical. 

The  seeds 

are  brown  on   the 

odorous. 

outside  when 

colored. 

ripe. 

opaque. 

white  in  the  in- 

natural. 

side. 

vegetable. 

hard. 

juicy. 

The  core  is  merabranace- 

hard. 

ous. 

solid. 

stiff. 

pleasant. 

yellow. 

The  eye  is  dry. 

hard. 

brown 

semi-transpa- 

shrivelled. 

rent. 

92  THIRD   STEP. — LESSON  XIIL 

LESSON  xm. 

GLASS   OF   A  WATCH. 

The  ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — concave  and 
convex. 

Farts,*  Qualities. 

It  is  artificial, 
transparent, 
brittle, 
bright, 
thin, 
hard, 
clear, 
curved. 
'  The  upper  face  is  convex. 

The  under  face  concave. 
The  edge  circular. 

Uses. — ^To  preserve  the  hands  of  the  watch  froi^  being 
injured,  and  to  keep  the  works  from  dust. 

LESSON     XIV. 

BROWN     SUGAR. 

The  idea  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — native. 

Qualities. 
It  is  brown.  It  is  useful. 

granulous.  vegetable  substance, 

sweet.  artificial, 

soluble.  native, 

fusible.  sticky. 

opaque.  moist. 

*  The  children  should  be  psked  whether  there  are  any  parts  to  this  ob- 
ject peculiar  to  it ;  and  when,  as  in  the  watch  glaas,  there  are  not,  the 
naming  of  the  parts  had  better  be  omitted. 


AN   ACORN.  93 

Use. — ^To  sweeten  our  food. 

Obtained  from  the  sugar  cane,  which  is  cultivated  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  some  of  the  Southern  States. 


LESSON  XV. 

AN  ACORN. 

Ideas  to  be 

developed — oval^  scaly. 

Parts, 

Qualities, 

The  cup. 

It  is  vegetable. 

berry. 

natural. 

nut. 

hard. 

point  of  the  nut.                           green. 

scar. 

opaque. 

scales. 

The  nut  is  oval. 

surface. 

bright. 

edges. 

solid. 

The  cup  is  dull. 

The  inside  is  concave. 

smooth. 

The  outside  is  rough. 

brownish. 

scaly. 

The  edge  is  circular. 

LESSON  XVI. 

A  PIECE   OF   HONEY   COMB. 

Ideas  to  be  developed — compressible^  hexagonal^   reg* 
ular. 

Parts.  Qualities. 

The  cells.  It  is  natural. 

divisions.  animal  production. 


04 


t 

TUIED 

STEP.- 

—LESSON  XVII. 

Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  edges. 

It  is  light. 

base  of  cells. 

fusible. 

comers. 

sticky. 

surface. 

dull. 

faces. 

semi-transparent 

yellowish. 

thin. 

compressible. 

brittle. 

The  cells  are  hexagonal. 

• 

regular. 

hollow. 

LESSON    XVII. 

REFINED    SUGAR. 

The  ideas  to  be  developed  by  this  lesson — crystaUine, 
amorphous,  refined. 


Parts, 

Qualities, 

The  surface. 

It  is  white. 

edges. 

middle. 

crystals. 

grains. 

pores. 

sweet, 
sparkling, 
crystalline, 
solid. 
,5     fusible, 
soluble. 

shapeless  or  amorphous, 
hard. 

refined. 

nutritious. 

crumbUng. 

opaque, 
artificial. 

vegetable  substance 
brittle. 

A  CORK.  95 


Brought  from  the  East  and  West  Indies  or  the  Southern 
States  in  its  raw  state.  Refined  by  sugar  bakers,  and  sold 
by  grocers  in  loaves  of  a  conical  form. 


LESSON 

XYIII. 

A    CORK. 

Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  ends. 

It 

is  light. 

surface- 

compressible. 

faces. 

elastic. 

edge»-  . 

opaque. 

dry. 

light  brown. 

solid. 

porous, 
smoothc 
cylindrical, 
dull. 

inflammable, 
vegetable. 
The  form  is  artificial. 
The  substance  is  natural. 
Uses. — ^To  stop  bottles,  to  buoy  people  up  in  the  water. 
Children  to  determine  what  qualities  fit  it  for  its  use. 

LESSON  XIX. 

GLUE. 

Idea  to  be  developed — tenacious. 
Qualities, 
It  is  translucent.  When  melted,  it  is  tough, 

mahogany  brown.  Adhesive. 


96 


THIRD   STEP. LESSON    XX. 


Qualities. 
It  is  hard.  When  melted,  it  is  sticky, 

solid.  elastic, 

animal  substance.  tenacious, 

artificial. 

LESSON    XX. 

PACKTHREAD. 

Ideas  to  be  developed — twisted^  slender. 
Qualities. 


It  is  dry. 

It  is  durable. 

dull. 

light  brown. 

twisted. 

vegetable  substance. 

flexible. 

inflammable. 

tough. 

soft. 

opaque. 

slender. 

fibrous. 

solid. 

artificial. 

rough. 

LESSON  XXL 

HONEV. 

Qualities. 

It  is  sweet. 

It  is  a  vegetable  substance 

fluid. 

natural. 

thick. 

nourishing. 

liquid. 

healing. 

yellow. 

opaque. 

sticky. 

LESSON    XXII 

BUTTER  CUP. 

Parts. 

Qualities. 

The  petals. 

It  is  vegetable. 

margins  ' 

or  edges.                    concavt. 

A  LADY   BIRD.  97 

Parts.  Qualities. 

The  cup.  It  is  natural, 

leaflets  of  cup.  odorous, 

stamens.  The  petals  are  yellow, 

pistils.  glossy  in  the  inside, 

stalk.  dull  on  the  outside, 

place  of  insertion.  circular, 

inside.  pointed  at  the  place  of 

outside.  insertion, 

surface.  striped. 

opaque. 

pliable. 
The  leaflets  are  greenish. 

thin. 

membranaceous. 

semi-transparent. 

pointed. 
The  stalk  is  green. 

grooved. 

angular. 

stiff. 

fibrous. 

LESSON    XXIII. 

A   LADY   BIRD. 

Ideas  to  be  developed — hemispherical^  fragile^  jointed. 
Parts.  Qualities. 

The  head.  It  is  animal, 

eyes.  natural, 

feelers  or  palpi.  hemispherical, 

horns,  or  antennae.       The  wing  cases  are  red. 
wings.  spotted, 

wing  cases,  or  elytra.  bright, 

thorax.  hard. 

5 


98  THIRD   STEP. ^LESSON   XXIV. 

Parts.  Qualities, 

The  legs.        The  wing  cases  are  brittle. 


body. 

opaque. 

back. 

stiff. 

spots. 

The  outside  is  convex. 

surface. 

The  inside  is  concave. 

claws. 

One  margin  straight. 

The  other  curved. 

The  wings  are  membranaceouai 

pliable. 

thin. 

transparent. 

fragile. 

The  body  is  oval. 

black. 

The  legs  are  jointed. 

short. 

black. 

LESSON  XXIV. 

AN   OYSTER. 

Ideas  to  be  developed— manwe,  pearly,  irregulafr. 

Parts,  ,-       Qualities, 

The  valves.  It  is  animal. 

hinge.  opaque. 

outside.  marine. 

inside.  natural. 

margin.  The  valves  are  circular. 

impressions.  hard. 

moUusk.  stiff. 

scales  or  laminae.  pulverable. 

The  outside  is  rough. 

scaly  or  laminated 


A   FIR    CONE.  99 

Qualities. 
The  outside  is  irregular. 

dull. 

dingy  brown. 

uneven. 
The  inside  is  pearly. 

bright. 

smooth. 

slightly  concave. 
The  mollusk  is  soft. 

edible. 

nutritious. 

cold. 

smooth. 

slippery. 

LESSON    XXV. 

A  FIR   CONE. 

Ideas  to  be  developed — conical,  tiled  or  imbricated^ 

keeled. 

Parts,  Qualities, 

The  scales.  It  is  brown, 

seeds.  opaque, 

top.  hard, 

place  of  insertion.  vegetable, 

fibres.  natural, 

surface.  conical, 

stalk.  tiled  or  imbricated. 

inflammable, 
odorous. 
The  scales  are  stifi*. 
dull. 
The  outside  is  light  brown. 


100  THIRD   STEP. — ^LESSON  XXVI. 

Qualities, 
The  outside  is  pointed  at  the  top. 
rough. 

irregularly  conicaL 
The  inside  of  scales  is  chestnut  color, 
shaded, 
keeled. 

LESSON  XXVI. 

FUR. 

ideas  to  be  developed — tubular ^  inanimate* 
Parts.  Qualities. 

The  skin.  It  is  an  animal  substance, 

hair.  It  is  hairy, 

surface.  inanimate, 

points  of  hair.    The  hairs  are  flexible. 

slender, 
soft, 
tubular, 
straight. 
The  hairs  are  pointed. 
The  skin  is  stiflT. 
The  color  and  other  peculiarities  to  be  decided  by  the 
specimen  presented. 

LESSON    XXVII. 

A  LAUREL   LEAP. 

Parts.  Qualities. 

The  upper  face.  It  is  oval, 
under  face.  smooth, 

edge  or  margin.  pointed, 

point  or  termination.  vegetable. 


A   NEEDLE.           y  '      ,      >       ,   ...  ,»,10 

Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  veins. 

It  is  odorous. 

midrib. 

opaque. 

base. 

bitter. 

stalk. 

stiff. 

long. 

The  rib  is  straight. 

raised,  or  keeled  on 

the  under  side. 

grooved  on  the  upper 

side. 

The  veins  are  curved. 

The  margin  is  curved. 

slightly  toothed. 

The  upper  face  is  bright. 

The  under  face  is  dull. 


LESSON   xxvm. 


A   NEEDLE. 

Parts, 

Qualities, 

The  eye. 

It 

is  a  mineral. 

shank. 

metallic. 

point. 

artificial. 

opaque. 

bright. 

tapering. 

pointed. 

slender. 

useful. 

gray  or  steel  color. 

hard. 

brittle. 

solid. 

steel. 

' "' ;  ;     ;    thiilo  step. — ^lesson  xxix. 

Made  of  steel,  which  is  a  preparation  of  iron,  having 
been  subjected  to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

LESSON  XXIX. 

A  PLANT   AND  A  STONE. 

To  develop  the  ideas  of  organs^  organized^  and  inor- 
ganized. 

To  give  the  class  an  idea  of  organized  and  inorganized, 
a  plant  and  a  stone  may  be  shown ;  and  questions  given, 
such  as  the  following : 

Teacher. — If  I  put  these  two  into  the  earth,  and  visit 
them  in  a  month,  what  great  difference  might  I  expect  to 
perceive  in  them  ? 

Children. — ^The  plant  will  have  grown ;  the  stone  will 
have  remained  of  the  same  size. 

Teacher. — How  did  the  plant  increase  ? 

Children. — It  absorbed  moisture. 

Teacher. — By  what  means  ? 

Children. — Through  its  roots  and  pores. 

Teacher. — ^Did  this  nourish  only  the  roots  ? 

Children, — No. 

Teacher. — ^You  are  right ;  the  sap  was  produced  which 
circulated  through  the  plant  by  means  of  vessels.  Now 
those  parts  of  vegetables  and  animals  which  do  something 
are  called  organs  ?  What  do  animals  hear  with  ?  What 
do  they  smell  with  ?  What  do  they  see  with  ?  What  do 
they  taste  with  ?  What  then  may  you  call  the  ears,  noses, 
ayes,  and  mouths  of  animals  ? 

Children. —  Organs. 


A  BELL.  103 

Teacher. — Name  some  other  organs  of  animals. 
Children. — Hands,  feet,  heart,  and  veins. 
Teacher. — Name  some  of  the  organs  of  vegetables. 
Children. — Roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  pores. 
Teacher. — ^A  body  possessing  organs  is  called  organized. 
Kame  some  organized  bodies. 
Children. — A  tree,  an  insect. 

Teacher. — Bodies  that  do  not  possess  any  organs  are 
called  inorganized.  Name  some  morganized  bodies  or 
substances. 

Children. — ^A  stone,  water,  sugar,  lead,  and  salt. 
The  teacher  names  miscellaneous  substances,  and  the 
children  decide  whether  they  are  organized  or  inorganized. 
She  then  calls  upon  the  children  to  name  all  the  organized 
bodies  they  can  think  of,  which  are  written  on  the  board 
in  one  column. 

Another  column  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  of  inor- 
ganized substances. 

Qualities  of  Stone. 
It  is  hard.  It  is  cold, 

inorganized.  opaque, 

mineral.  solid, 

natural.  irregular  in  form,  or  amor- 

phous. 

LESSON   XXX. 

A   BELL. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  in  this  lesson — sonorous  and  the 
peculiar  parts. 

Parts.  Qualities. 

The  barrel.  It  is  metallic. 


104  THIRD   STEP. — ^LESSON  XXXI. 

^arts.  Qualities. 

The  ears,  cannon.  ^  It  is  artificial 

handle,              I  hard. 

according     j  elastic. 

to  the  sort.  J  sonorous, 

clapper.  cold. 


nm.  hollow. 

surface. 

inside. 


concave. 

heavy. 

outside.  rim  circular. 

clapper  spherical. 
Different  kinds  of  bells. 

Souse  bells,  pulled  by  wires  passing  from  one  part  of  a 
house  to  another  part  where  they  are  rung.  Church  bells, 
suspended  at  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  pulled  by 
ropes ; — when  there  are  several  bells  lDf  different  tones, 
they  form  a  peal  or  chime ; — when  one  is  rung  slowly,  it 
is  said  to  be  tolled.  Hand  bells,  swung  by  the  hand — some 
used  in  houses,  some  by  milkmen,  &c.  Cow  bells,  hung 
on  the  neck  of  a  cow. 

Uses  of  Bells. — To  give  notice  of  different  things — in 
the  house,  of  different  people  arriving,  servants  wanted — 
in  a  church,  the  time  of  divine  service  is  marked,  deaths 
and  funerals  announced  by  tolling,  marriages  and  happy 
events  by  a  peal  The  cow  bell  is  used  to  tell  where  the 
cow  is.  Horse  bells  to  give  warning  to  people  on  the 
street  of  the  approach  of  a  sleigh. 

LESSON    XXXI. 

A  WHEEL. 

Ideas  to  be  developed  in  this  Xq^sou— circular,  diverg- 
ing, and  the  peculiar  parts. 


A   WHEEL.  106 

Parts,  Qualities, 

The  nave.  The  rim  is  circular.* 

box.  divided, 

spokes.  wooden, 

arm  of  the  axletree.  thick. 

linchpin.  The  tire  is  circular, 

rim  composed  of  felloes.  entire, 

tire  or  band.  iron, 

rivets.  thin, 

centre.  The  spokes  are  straight;, 

circumference.  equal  m  length, 

wooden. 

diverging  from 
the  nave. 

The  relative  position  and  proportion  of  the  different, 
parts  should  form  a  part  of  the  exercise. 

The  nave  is  in  the  centre ;  the  spokes  diverge  from  the 
nave  to  the  rim,  and  are  all  of  equal  length,  if  not,  the  rim 
would  not  form  a  perfect  circle ;  the  tire  is  outside  the  rim, 
and  forms,  of  course,  a  larger  circle  than  the  rim  which  it 
encloses ;  the  arm  of  the  axle  fits  into  the  box  *.  the  felloes  are 
parts  of  a  circle,  and  are  joined  together,  forming  the  rim.f 

The  children  should  alsa  be  led,  as  an  additional  exer- 
cise, to  see  the  use  and  adaptation  of  the  different  parts. 
The  box  to  receive  the  arm  of  the  axletree  upon  which  the 

*  The  children  will  probably  say,  round.  They  should  be  led  to  see 
that  this  is  a  very  indefinite  term,  which  they  apply  to  a  ball  as  well  as  to 
a  shilling ;  their  observatiozi  should  be  directed  by  questions  to  the  per- 
ception of  how  a  sphere  and  a  circle  differ,  and  the  term  circular,  given 
and  applied  to  the  wheel  before  them,  and  to  absent  objects  of  »  similar 
bhapw. 

-j-  These  parts  are  meiwloncd  in  1  Kings,  vii.  33. 
6* 


106  THIRD    STEP. LESSON  XXXU. 

wheels  turn — the  spokes  to  keep  the  rim  in  its  circular  form 
and  to  unite  the  nave  and  the  rim — the  tire  to  keep  all  the 
parts  in  their  place,  and  to  give  strength ;  the  tire  is  put 
on  when  the  iron  is  expanded  by  great  heat,  and  being 
suddenly  cooled,  it  contracts,  and  this  binds  the  whole  firmly 
together.  The  linchpin  passes  through  the  arm  of  the  axle- 
tree,  and  keeps  it  fixed  in  the  box. 

The  use  of  wheels  is,  by  their  rotary  motion,  to  impel 
carriages  of  different  kinds;  the  children  might  name  the 
various  vehicles  in  which  they  are  used ;  they  might  also 
be  led  to  see  that  no  other  form  than  that  of  a  circle 
would  answer  for  a  wheel. 

LESSO>"   XXXII. 

An  exercise  which  gives  a  pleasing  variety  to  lessons  on 
objects,  and  which  calls  out  thought  and  conception — con- 
sists in  the  teacher,  instead  of  presenting  an  object  for  ex- 
amination, giving  the  children  a  description  of  one,  and 
requiring  them  from  the  qualities  attributed  to  it  to  dis- 
cover  what  it  is.  Some  judgment  is  necessary  in  giving 
such  a  lesson,  that  the  children  may  be  led  to  correct  their 
hasty  conclusions,  and  to  see  that  it  is  not  one  quality  which 
decides  what  a  material  is,  but  the  combination  of  several. 
An  example  is  given,  to  help  the  teacher  in  carrying  out 
the  idea. 

Teacher, — I  will  tell  you  the  qualities  of  something  I 
am  thinking  about,  and  you  must  try  and  find  out  what  it 
is.     It  is  white  and  natural. 

Children,— M:\\\i  ? 

Tcac/ier, — ^No ;  it  is  solid. 


FIKE.  107 

Children.— Chalk  ? 

Teacher, — No ;  it  is  vegetable  and  odorous. 

Children. — ^A  white  lily  ? 

Teacher. — No ;  for  it  is  friable  and  highly  inflammable. 
Now  repeat  the  qualities  I  have  mentioned  and  think  what 
substance  possesses  them  all.  White,  natural,  solid,  vege- 
table substance,  odorous,  and  highly  inflammable. 

Children  will  not  fail  to  find  out  that  it  must  be  cam- 
phor, having  in  the  third  Step  had  a  lesson  on  this  object. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  the  qualities  first  mentioned  are 
common  to  many  substances,  without  suflSciently  distin- 
guishing any  one.  The  children's  conception  is  therefore 
engaged  m  callmg  up  in  their  minds  a  variety  of  objects 
familiar  to  them.  The  art  of  the  teacher  is  to  keep  at 
first  in  the  background  distinguishing  qualities,  so  as  more 
thoroughly  to  stimulate  the  conception,  and  in  the  end  to 
lead  the  children  to  see  more  clearly  the  peculiar  and  dis^ 
tinguishing  qualities  of  the  substance. 

LESSON  XXXIII. 

FIRE. 

Ideas  to  be  developed — consuming^  purifying^  ascend- 
ing. 

Qualities. 
It  is  bright.  It  is  purifying, 

reddish  yellow.  hot. 

spreading.  The  flames  are  pointed, 

consuming.  ascending, 

drying. 
How  produced  and  fed. — Fire  can  be  produced  by  fric- 
tion ;  rubbing  two  pieces  of  wood  or  stone  briskly  togeth- 


108  THIKD    STEP. LESSON   XXXIII. 

er ;  the  collision  of  flint  and  steel  occasions  sparks  that  will 
set  fire  to  any  inflammable  material ;  but  lucifer  matches, 
which  are  tipped  with  a  very  combustible  substance,  are 
now  generally  used  to  produce  fire.  The  fuel  that  feeds 
fire  is  either  coal,  wood,  or  peat. 

Effects  of  fire. — Some  substances,  as  coal,  wood,  &c.,  it 
consumes,  reducing  them  to  ashes.  Some,  as  butter, 
metals,  &c.,  it  melts  or  changes  from  solids  to  liquids. 
Some,  as  water,  quicksilver,  &c.,  it  changes  into  steam,  or 
vapor.  Some  substances,  as  dough,  clay,  &c.,  it  hardens. 
It  expands  bodies,  penetrating  through  their  particles  and 
loosening  them.  Some  substances,  as  metals,  it  refines, 
driving  away  impurities. 

Uses. — 1.  In  domestic  life.  It  warms  our  houses  and 
gives  light  to  us  when  the  natural  light  of  day  is  removed. 
It  cooks  our  food,  thus  enabling  us  to  profit  by  the  animals 
and  vegetables  which  God  has  given  us. 

2.  In  manufactures.  By  fire,  metals  are  fitted  for  va- 
rious purposes.  Glass,  porcelain,  brick  making,  indeed  all 
our  manufactures,  require  the  aid  of  fire.  It  is  also  fire 
that  furnishes  us  with  the  steam  that  enables  us  to  travel 
with  such  rapidity  by  sea  and^land,  and  which  lights  our 
streets  and  houses  at  night. 

An  emblem.'^ — ^There  are  many  instances  in  the  Bible 
of  fire  being  used  as  an  emblem.  Thus  God  is  spoken  of 
as  a  "  consuming  fire."  His  wrath,  when  kindled  by  sin, 
destroys  like  fire.  Our  Saviour  is  compared  to  the  refiner's 
fire,  purifying  His  people,  purging  them  from  the  dross  of 
sin,  as  fire  acts  upon  metals. 

*  An  cml)lem  is  a  picture  which  represents  one  thing  to  the  eye  and 
another  to  the  understanding. 


AN   ANCHOR. 


109 


LESSON^  XXXIV. 


AN   ANCHOR. 

Parts. 

Qualities, 

The  shank. 

It  is  iron. 

cross-bar 

or  stock.                        heavy. 

arms. 

hard. 

flukes. 

cold. 

ring. 

opaque. 

- 

metallic. 

The  shank  is  perpendicular  to 

the  beai 

The  beam  is  straight. 

horizontal  to  the 

shank. 

smaller  at  the  ends. 

sometimes  h*on. 

sometimes  wooden. 

The  arms  are  curved. 

The  flukes  are  pointed. 

sharp. 

The  rinj?  is  circular. 

The  largest  kind  of  anchor  is  called  the  sheet  anchor, 
and  is  only  used  in  times  of  great  danger  or  in  heavy 
gales. 

The  anchor  is  an  instrument  of  iron  attached  by  a  cable, 
which  passes  through  the  ring  to  the  bows  of  ships ;  when 
the  latter  are  to  remain  stationary,  the  anchor  is  let  down 
or  cast  into  the  water,  and  is  thrown  by  the  stock  into  such 
a  position  that  one  of  the  flukes  is  sure  to  enter  the  ground 
perpendicularly  ;  this  keeps  the  vessel  fixed,  for  any  strain 
acting  nearly  horizontally  would  rather  tend  to  root  the 
arm  deeper  in  its  moorings.     This  operation  is  called  ca^t- 


110  THIRD    STEP. ^LESSON   XXXV. 

ing  anchor^  and  the  ship  is  then  said  to  be  riding  at  an« 
chor  y  when  the  anchor  is  heaved  up,  the  expression  used 
is  weighing  anchor.  When  the  anchor  finds  good  moorings 
and  takes  firm  hold,  the  vessel  is  in  safety ;  it  cannot  be 
driven  to  and  fro  by  the  storm,  or  dashed  against  rocks  by 
the  hurricane. 

When  the  children  clearly  understand  what  an  anchor 
is,  and  the  oflSce  it  performs,  they  should  be  led  to  trace 
the  analogy  between  hope  and  an  anchor.  The  former  is 
thrown  out  from  us,  and  is  fixed  upon  something,  and  if  it 
has  a  firm  grasp  it  will  keep  us  steady ;  we  shall  remain  un- 
shaken, whatever  may  assail,  as  long  as  the  anchor  of  hope 
retains  its  hold.  The  children  should  be  referred  to  Heb. 
vi.,  where  the  anchor  is  used  as  the  emblem  of  hope,  which 
is  described  as  having  entered  into  that  within  the  veil, 
that  is,  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  type  of  Heaven,  where 
our  great  High  Priest  is  for  us  entered  ;  anchored  on  Him, 
the  rock  of  our  salvation,  we  shall  be  kept  immovably  fixed 
amidst  all  the  trials  and  temptations  of  life.  We  often 
speak  of  a  person  or  thing  being  our  sheet  anchor,  which 
means  that  on  which  we  altogether  depend  as  our  last 
and  best  resource. 

LESSON    XXXV. 

A  BALANCE. 

Paris. 

The  lever,  or  beam.  The  qualities  depend 

pivot  or  fulcrum.  upon  the  kind  of 

scales.  balance  used  in  the 

chains  connecting  the  lesson. 

scales  with  tlie  beam. 


A  BALAI^CE.  Ill 

The  balance  is  an  instrument  used  to  ascertain  the  ex- 
act weight  of  anything.  It  is  most  essential  in  trade ; 
without  such  a  help  barter  and  exchange  would  be  guess- 
work, and  dishonest  dealings  could  not  be  easily  detected. 
When  one  scale  perfectly  balances  the  other,  what  is  held 
in  each  is  equal  in  weight,  and  if  in  one  scale  standard 
weights  are  placed,  the  substance  in  the  other  can  be  accu- 
rately determined. 

The  children  should  endeavor  to  find  out  why  the 
balance  is  employed  as  the  emblem  of  justice,  and  why, 
whenever  justice  is  represented  as  a  person,  she  always 
holds  a  pair  of  scales  in  her  hand.  They  will  be  able  to 
trace  the  analogy  between  testing  a  substance  as  to  its 
weight  in  scales  and  the  exercise  of  justice,  w^hich  consists 
in  impartially  weighing  conduct  or  opinions  against  a  law- 
ful standard,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  just  and  right  judg- 
ment. They  will  also  understand  the  metaphor  used  to 
set  forth  the  conduct  of  Belshazzar  :  "Thou  art  weighed 
in  the  balance,  and  art  found  wanting."  His  life  and  char- 
acter were  in  one  scale,  God's  holy  law  and  requirements 
in  the  other,  and  the  former  fell  short — was  altogether  de- 
ficient. 

At  this  step  some  exercises  would  be  well  introduced 
on  the  connection  of  diiferent  qualities.  The  children  will 
easily  be  led  to  discover  that  all  absorbent  objects  are  po- 
rous, that  all  brittle  substances  are  hard,  that  all  adhesive 
ones  are  tenacious,  all  sonorous  ones  are  elastic ;  that  to  be 
malleable  and  ductile  they  must  be  tenacious,  their  particles 
cohering ;  to  be  elastic,  an  object  must  be  either  exten- 
sible, flexible,  or  compressible. 


112  THIRD    STEP. LESSON   XXXV. 

Children  may  also  with  profit  exercise  their  conceptive 
powers  in  drawing,  out  of  the  treasures  of  their  memory, 
examples  of  objects  in  which  any  particular  quality  is  found, 
and  classifying  them  according  to  the  different  degree  in 
which  they  possess  the  quality.  Thus  objects  may  be  re- 
membered, furnishing  a  regular  gradation  from  the  most 
impenetrable  opacity  to  the  clearest  transparency;  the 
same  may  be  done  with  hard  and  soft — ^from  soft  as  butter 
to  as  hard  as  flint,  &g. 


INTEODUCTOEY   EEMAKKS.  113 


FOURTH      STEP 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 


The  chief  aim  proposed  iu  this  Step  is,  to  exercise  the 
children  in  composing,  arranging,  and  classifying  objects, 
and  in  tracing  analogies  ;  thus  developing  a  higher  faculty 
than  that  of  simply  observing  their  qualities.  The  com- 
plex operation  of  connecting  things  by  their  points  of  re- 
semblance, and  at  the  same  time  of  distinguishing  them 
individually  by  their  points  of  dissimilarity,  prepares  for 
one  of  the  highest  exercises  of  our  reason  ;  yet  it  may  be 
carried  on  in  children  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  is 
usually  imagined,  if  they  are  trained  to  arrange  their  ideas. 
With  this  view  the  spices,  liquids,  and  metals  have  been 
chosen  as  forming  .a  connected  series  of  objects.*  The 
different  woods,  grains,  &c.,  are  good  subjects  for  similar 
instruction. 

In  the  early  lessons,  the  perceptions  simply  exercised 
the  intuitive  faculties,  which,  being  stimulated  and  direct- 
ed, furnish  the  mind  with  ideas.  At  this  point,  the  process 
commences  of  regarding  them,  not  simply,  but  in  series  and 
relationship,  and  lessons  are  given  to  cultivate  the  discern- 
ment of  analogies  between  physical  and  moral  or  spiritual 

*  A  few  lessons  on  Animals,  as  also  in  Geography,  have  been  added. 


1  1  4  FOURTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  I. 

qualities.    The  information  given  should  be  reproduced  by 
the  children  on  their  slates  or  on  paper.* 

epiCES. 


LESSON    I. 

PEPPER. 

Qualities  of  Pepper, 
It  is  hard.  It  is  dry. 

vegetable.  dull, 

foreign,  t  sapid, 

tropical  production.  pungent, 

wrinkled.  odorous, 

spherical.  aromatic, 

rough.  wholesome, 

black.  stimulating, 

preservative. 
*  The  leading  qualities  of  the  objects  are  still  put  down  in  connection 
with  each  lesson,  for  the  convenience  of  the  teacher,  if  she  finds  it  desirable 
to  use  any  of  them.  As  fast,  however,  as  the  children  become  suflBciently 
familiar  with  any  particular  quality,  and  the  term  expressing  it,  it  is  better 
not  to  continue  to  repeat  it,  but  only  call  out  those  qualities  that  awaken 
new  thoughts  and  require  new  terms,  or  that  are  peculiarly  characteristic 
of  the  object.  This  remark  applies  to  previous  as  well  as  succeeding  les- 
sons. No  good  can  result  by  the  constant  repetition  of  qualities  and  terms 
already  familiar  to  the  children. 

f  Teacher. — If  it  comes  from  a  foreign  country,  how  do  we  get  it? 
Children. — It  comes  in  a  ship. 

Teacher. — This  is  called  importing ;  and  sending  out  of  our  own  coun- 
try is  called  exporting.     What  do  we  call  this  exchange  of  production  ? 
Children. — Trade  or  commerce. 

leacher. — And  what  are  the  people  called  who  carry  it  on  ? 
ClvUdren, — Merchants. 


NUTMEG.  115 

The  pepper  plant  is  a  creeping  shrub,  much  resembling 
the  vine,  and  is  often  called  the  pepper  vine.  It  is  gener- 
ally planted  near  some  thorny  bush,  among  the  branches  of 
which  it  entwines  itself  like  ivy.  It  produces  berries  in 
clusters :  if  the  fruit  is  intended  for  black  pepper,  it  is  not 
allowed  to  ripen,  but  is  collected  while  green,  and  rubbed 
by  the  hands  or  feet,  till  the  seeds,  several  of  which  are 
contained  in  each  berry,  are  separated.  These  are  exposed 
on  mats  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  during  the  day,  and  are  col- 
lected at  night  in  jars,  to  preserve  them  from  the  dew. 
When  the  berries  are  intended  to  be  converted  into  white 
pepper,  they  are  allowed  to  ripen,  and  they  then  become 
red.  They  are  rubbed  in  a  basket,  the  pulp  is  removed  by 
washing,  and  the  seeds,  which  are  white,  are  dried. 


LESSON 

II. 

NUTMEG. 

Qualities  of  Nutmeg, 

sapid.                        It 

is  foreign. 

hard. 

tropical  production. 

oval. 

pungent. 

dingy  brown. 

preservative. 

dull. 

pulverable. 

opaque. 

agreeable  to  the  taste. 

dry. 

aromatic. 

vegetable. 

odorous. 

natural.                Surface  uneven. 

The  nutmeg  is  the  kernel  of  a  fruit  which  is  the  pro^ 
icfuce  of  a  tree  resembling  our  cherry  tree,  both  in  size  and 
growth.  It  is  found  in  the  East  Indies.  The  external 
covering  of  the  fruit  is  a  husk ;  this  opens  when  ripe,  and 


116  FOURTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  H. 

displays  a  thin  scarlet  membrane,  called  mace ;  this  being 
carefully  removed,  there  still  remains  a  woody  shell  which 
surrounds  the  nutmeg.  The  nuts  are  first  dried  in  the  sun, 
and  then  placed  on  a  frame  of  bamboos  over  a  slow  fire, 
until  the  kernels,  on  being  shaken,  rattle  in  their  shells. 

REMARKS   OK  WORDS. 

Teacher. — ^Why  is  nutmeg  said  to  be  odorous  ? 

Children. — Because  it  has  a  smell. 

Teacher, — Why  aromatic  ? 

Children. — Because  it  has  that  pungent  smell  distin- 
guished by  the  name  aromatic. 

Teacher. — Are  all  things  that  are  aromatic  also  odorous? 

Children. — Yes. 

Teacher. — Are  all  things  that  are  odorous  also  aromatic? 

Children. — No. 

Teacher. — Is  an  onion  odorous? 

Children. — Yes. 

Teacher. — Are  these  smells  alike  ? 

Children. — No. 

Teacher. — Which  of  these  terms  includes  every  kind  of 
wnell? 

Children, — Odorous. 

Teacher. — If  you  were  to  put  all  odorous  substances 
into  one  class,  and  all  aromatic  into  another,  what  would 
you  say  of  the  two  classes  ? 

Children. — ^That  the  class  containing  all  odorous  object^j 
would  be  much  the  largest;  it  would  include  the  aroraatio 
substances. 

Teach&r. — A  term  which  includes  all  the  varieties  of  one 


MACS.  117 

kind  or  quality  of  substance,  is  called  a  generic  term, 
while  that  which  marks  one  of  the  species,  is  called  a 
specific  term.  Which  is  the  generic  term,  odorous  or  aro- 
matic ? 

Children. — Odorous. 

Teacher. — Why  is  this  a  generic  term  ? 

Children. — Because  it  includes  every  variety  of  odors. 

Teacher. — What  kind  of  term  is  aromatic  ? 

Children. — A  specific  term. 

Teacher.— '^\^.^  ? 

Children. — Because  it  applies  only  to  one  particular 
kind  of  smell. 

Give  examples  of  generic  terms  and  of  a  specific  term 
applicable  to  each  of  them. 

Children. — Odorous,  fragrant ;  colored,  red ;  foreign, 
Chinese  production. 

The  class  should  determine,  in  succeeding  lessons,  what 
terms  are  generic  and  what  specific. 

LESSON  m. 

MACE. 

Qualities  of  Mace. 

It  is  pungent.  It  is  natural. 

agreeable  to  the  taste.  inflammable, 

aromatic.  medicinal, 

orange  red.  dry. 

dull.  pulverable. 

opaque.  membranaceous, 

thin.  preservative, 

fibrous.  imported. 


118  FOURTH   STEP. — LESSON  m. 


It  is  brittle. 

It  is  sapid. 

foreign. 

stimulating. 

tropical. 

Mace  is  the  covering  between  the  shell  of  the  nutm«j 
and  its  external  husk. 

EEMARKS     ON    WORDS. 

Teacher, — "  Foreign."  Should  you  call  mace  a  foreign 
production  if  you  were  in  the  place  where  it  grows  ? 

Children, — No.  It  is  only  foreign  to  the  countries 
where  it  does  not  grow. 

Teacher, — Where  would  you  call  it  pungent  and  aro- 
matic ? 

Children, — Everywhere. 

Teacher, — Can  it  be  mace  without  being  foreign  ? 

Children, — Yes. 

Teacher, — Can  it  5e  mace  without  being  pimgent  and 
aromatic  ? 

Children . — No. 

Teacher. — Which  then  of  these  qualities  belong  to  mace 
as  mace  ? 

Children. — ^Pungent  and  aroinatic. 

Those  qualities  which  determine  anything  to  he  what  it 
is,  are  called  essential. 

Qualities  which  are  not  essential  are  called  accidental. 

What  qualities  of  mace  are  essential  ? 

What  qualities  of  mace  are  accidental  ? 

Why  are  pungent  and  aromatic  said  to  be  essential 
qualities  ? 

Why  is  it  that  its  being  foreign  is  said  to  be  accidental  ? 


LESSON^  IV. 

CINNAMON 

Qualities  of  Cinnamon, 
"   It  is  light  brown,  and  gives  name  to  a  color, 
thin.  It  is  inflammable. 


brittle. 

dry. 

preservative, 
aromatic. 

vegetable, 
natural. 

pungent. 

agreeable  to  tie  tasts. 

opaque. 

hard. 

foreign, 
hght. 

pulverabla 
medicinal. 

sweet. 

stimulating. 

Cinnamon  is  in  the  inner  bark  of  the  branches  of  a 
kind  of  laurel  tree,  growing  m  Ceylon  and  Malabar.  The 
branches  of  three  years  old  are  selected  as  furnishing  the 
best  cinnamon;  the  outside  bark  is  scraped  off;  the  branch- 
es are  then  ripped  up  lengthways  with  a  knife,  and  the  in- 
ner bark  is  gradually  loosened,  till  it  can  be  entirely  taken 
off.  Exposure  to  the  sun  causes  it  to  curl  up.  The  pieces 
of  bark  so  curled  are  called  quills,  and  the  smaller  ones  art 
inserted  into  the  larger. 

LESSON    V. 

GINGER. 

Qualities  of  Ginger, 
It  is  fibrous.  It  is  solid, 

knotty.  hard, 

sapid.  preservative. 


120  FOURTH   STEP. ^LESSON    VI. 


Qualities. 

Qualities, 

It  is  rough. 

It  is  light. 

jagged. 

yellowish  brown. 

vegetable. 

pulverable. 

tropical. 

medicinal. 

foreign. 

stimulating. 

aromatic. 

wholesome. 

pungent. 

opaque. 

dry. 

inflammable. 

dull. 

Ginger  is  the  root  of  a  plant  resembling  a  reed,  whicB 
grows  both  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  The  root  does 
not  strike  to  any  considerable  depth  in  the  earth,  but 
spreads  out  far  in  every  direction.  When  first  dug  up,  it 
is  soft,  and  eaten  by  the  Indians  as  a  salad.  If  intended 
for  exportation,  it  is  placed  in  bundles,  and  dried  in  the  sun. 


LESSON 

VI 

ATJ.SPICE. 

Parts. 
The  skin.                                      It 

Qualities. 
is  aromatic. 

seeds. 

odorous. 

partition  of  seed  vessel.^ 
point  of  insertion. 

pungent. 

spherical. 

brown. 

speckled. 

organized. 

natural. 

• 

vegetable. 

dry. 

opaque. 

tropical 

dull 

A 

CLOVE. 

Qualities. 

Qualities, 

\i  is  stimulating. 

It  is  hard. 

inflammable. 

friable. 

sapid. 

wrinkled. 

conservative. 

121 


Alls^jice  or  pimento  is  the  dried  berry  of  a  species  of 
myrtle^  indigenous  in  the  West  Indies ;  it  is  a  most  beauti- 
ful and  fragrant  tree,  producing  numerous  bunches  of  white 
flowers,  to  which  succeed  the  berries ;  these  are  gathered 
by  the  hand  and  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry.  In  this 
operation  they  lose  their  former  color,  and  become  brown. 
When  the  seeds  rattle  in  the  shell,  they  are  known  to  be 
sufficiently  dry,  and  are  packed  in  bags  for  exportation. 
The  flavor  of  pimento  is  considered  to  unite  that  of  the 
other  spices ;  henct  ihe  name  of  allspice. 


LESSON 

yii. 

Parts. 

A  CLOVE. 

Qualities. 

The  calyx  or  cup. 
tube. 

It  is  aromatic, 
odorous. 

leaflets  of  cut?. 
points  of  leaflets, 
bud. 
•dges. 

pungent. 

brown. 

organized, 

natural. 

vegetable. 

dry. 

opaque. 

tropical. 

imported. 

dull. 

122  FOURTH   STEP. — LESSON   vn. 


Qualities, 

It  is  stimulating.  The  bud  is  spherical 

hard.  The  tube  is  long, 

inflammable.  The  leaflets  are  pointed, 

preservative. 

Cloves  are  the  unexpanded  flower  buds  and  calyx  ol'  a 
species  of  laurel  which  grows  in  the  West  Indies.  At  a 
certain  season  of  the  year,  the  clove  tree  produces  a  pro' 
fusion  of  flowers  in  clusters ;  they  are  gathered  before  the 
flower  opens,  when  the  four  points  of  the  calyx  project, 
and  the  petals  are  folded  one  over  the  other,  forming  a  bud 
about  the  size  of  a  pea.  After  they  are  gathered,  they  are 
exposed  for  some  time  to  the  smoke  of  a  wood  fire,  and 
then  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  lesson  on  spices,  the  chil- 
dren should  be  called  upon  to  mention  those  qualities 
which  they  have  found  common  to  all ;  as  aromatic,  pun- 
gent, dry,  tropical,  stimulating,  vegetable.  Then  let  some 
other  similar  substance  be  presented  to  them,  such  as 
mustard. 

Teacher. — Is  this  a  spice  ? 

Children, — No.  .^' 

Teacher— Why  not ? 

Children. — It  has  not  the  qualities  of  a  spice. 

Teacher. — If  I  showed  you  a  substance  with  which  you 
were  not  previously  acquainted,  and  you  found  that  it  pos* 
sessed  the  essential  qualities  of  the  spices  you  have  exam* 
ined,  what  would  you  consider  it  to  be? 

Children. — A  spice. 

Teacher. — To  what  then  do  you  apply  the  term  spice  ? 


A  CLOVE.  123 

Children, — To  a  set  of  natural  productions  possessing 
certain  qualities. 

Teacher. — When  a  number  of  things  are  arranged  to- 
gether, each  having  similar  qualities,  what  would  you  call 
the  collection  ?  What  would  you  call  a  number  of  boys 
who  are  placed  together  because  they  are  nearly  equal  in 
knowledge  ? 

Children. — A  class. 

Teacher. — -What,  then,  would  you  call  a  collection  of 
substances  that  possess  the  same  (qualities  ? 

Children. — A  class. 

Teacher. — ^What  may  you  call  all  substances  which  are 
aromatic,  pungent,  tropical,  &c.  ? 

Children. — A  class. 

Teacher  — And  ^hat  is  the  name  of  that  class ? 

Children. — Spice. 

Teacher. — What,  then,  does  the  term  spice  express  ? 

Children. — ^A  class  of  substances,  possessing  the  quali- 
ties aromatic,  pungent,  &c. 

Teacher. — ^Tell  me  all  the  substances  belonging  to  that 
class. 

Children. — ^Pepper,  nutmeg,  mace,  cinnamon,  ginger, 
allspice,  cloves. 

Teacher. — Are  all  the  substances  of  this  class  alike  in 
all  respects? 

Children. — Xo. 

Teacher. — How  can  you  tell  one  spice  from  another  ? 

Children. — By  each  having  some  qualities  peculiar  to 
itself 

Teacher. — Name  something  in  each  spice  which  distin- 
guishes it. 


124  FOURTH   STEP. — LESSON  VIII. 

Children. — Ginger  is  a  root ;  pepper  is  a  seed ;  nutmeg 
is  a  kernel ;  mace  is  the  membranaceous  covering  of  that 
kernel ;  cinnamon  is  a  bark ;  pimento  is  a  seed  vessel ;  the 
clove  is  a  cup  and  flower  bud. 

ON   LIQUIDS. 


LESSON  vm. 

WATER. 

Qualities  of  Water, 

It  is  fluid.  It  is  wholesome, 

transparent.  tasteless, 

clear.  cold, 

colorless.  inodorous, 

liquid.  natural, 

useful.  •       solvent, 

bright.  refreshing, 

incompressible,  except  penetrating, 

by  immense  power.  cleansing, 

eflective.  cooling, 

drinkable.  fertilizing. 
Some  waters  are  medicinal. 

Different  kinds  of  Water. 

Rain.                          -^  Medicinal, 

spring.  hot  spring, 

sea,  or  salt.  stagnant, 
river. 

Different  states  of  Water. 

Ice.  Fog. 

snow.  cloud, 

hail.  vapor, 

rain.  dew. 

mist.  steanL 


WATER.  125 

Natural  Collections  of  Water, 
Oceans.  Lakes. 

seas.  ponds, 

rivers.  springs. 

Operations  of  Water. — It  purifies,  evaporates,  freezes, 
quenches  thirst,  cools,  finds  its  own  level,  penetrates,  fertil- 
izes, is  a  solvent,  extinguishes  fire,  separates  easily  into  por 
tions  which  assume  a  spherical  form. 

Movement  of  Water. 

Teacher. — In  what  way  do  oceans  and  seas  move  ? 

Children. — In  waves. 

Teacher. — When  you  are  on  the  sea  shore,  what  difier. 
ence  do  you  observe  in  the  waves  during  the  course  of  the 
day? 

Children. — At  one  time  they  are  coming  in ;  at  another 
going  out. 

Teacher. — ^This  is  called  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide., 
What  is  the  movement  of  a  river  ? 

Children. — It  flows. 

Teacher. — What  eventually  becomes  of  its  waters  ? 

Children. — They  are  lost  in  some  ocean  or  sea. 

Teacher, — What  is  that  which  with  us  is  always  flowing 
on? 

Children. — Our  life. 

Teacher. — To  what  does  it  conduct  us  ? 

Children. — To  eteniity. 

Teacher. — Of  what,  then,  is  a  river  a  fit  emblem  or 
representation  ? 

Childre7i. — Of  life. 


126  FOURTH    STEP. ^LESSON   IX. 

Teacher. — ^Find  some  passages  in  the  Bible  where  '^ 
river  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  life. 

Teacher, — You  find  the  particles  of  water  run  about  \ 
will  the  particles  of  wood  do  the  same  ? 

Children. — No. 

Teacher. — "Why  will  not  the  particles  of  wood  flow 
about  ? 

Children. — Because  they  stick  close  together. 

Teacher. — This  is  called  cohering.  When  one  substance 
is  joined  to  another  it  is  said  to  adhere  (or  stick  to) ;  when 
the  particles  of  the  same  substance  stick  together,  they  are 
said  to  cohere. 

The  particles  of  a  liquid  cohere  very  slightly,  and  are 
therefore  easily  separated.  The  particles  of  a  solid  cohere 
closely. 

LESSON  IX. 

OIL. 

Qualities  of  Oil. 

It  is  fluid.  It  is  light, 

yellowish.  thick, 

semi-transparent.  ,>"                 inflammable, 

soft.  oleaginous, 

liquid.  Some  oils  are  vegetable, 

penetrating.  Some  are  animal. 

emolUent.  When  bad,  it  is  rancid, 

greasy.  odorous. 

The  vegetable  oil  is  expressed  from  olives,  and  is  im- 
ported chiefly  from  Italy  and  the  south  of  France.  It  is 
also  obtained  from  nuts  and  some  other  fruits,  and  from 
seeds. 


BEEK.  127 

The  animal  oil  is  procured  from  the  blubber  or  fat  of 
the  whale  and  seal. 

Birds  are  furnished  with  little  bags  containing  oil ;  with 
this  they  plume  their  feathers,  and  it  causes  rain  and  moist- 
ure to  trickle  off.  Without  this  provision,  the  feathers  of 
water  fowl  would  imbibe  so  much  moisture,  that  they  would 
become  too  heavy  to  float  on  the  w^ater. 


LESSON    X. 

BEER. 

Qualities  of  Beer. 
It  is  liquid.  It  is  artificial, 

fluid.  odorous, 

orange  color.  semi-transparent, 

wholesome.  slightly  intoxicating, 

fermented.  strengthening. 

Beer  is  composed  of  malt,  hops,  and  water,  boiled  to- 
gether. Hops  are  the  blossoms  of  a  creeping  plant,  culti- 
vated in  many  portions  of  this  country ;  the  place  where 
they  grow  is  called  a  hop  yard.  The  tub  in  which  the 
malt  is  first  steeped  is  called  a  mashing  tub  /  that  which 
holds  the  beer  when  made,  a  vat ;  when  wanted  for  con- 
sumption, or  sale,  it  is  put  into  barrels. 

Malt  is  made  of  barley,  by  the  following  process.  A 
quantity  of  barley  is  soaked  in  water  for  two  or  three  days ; 
the  water  being  afterward  drained  off,  the  grain  heats 
spontaneously,  swells,  bursts,  becomes  .sweet,  and  ferments. 
Vegetables,  during  decomposition,  undergo  several  degrees 
of  fermentation ;  the  first  (that  above  described)  is  called 


128  FOURTH   STEP. — ^LESSON    XI. 

the  saccharine  fermentation^  from  the  sweetness  it  pro- 
duces ;  sacchar-wm  being  the  Latin  for  sugar.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  decomposition,  which  is  similar  to  that  which 
takes  place  in  seed  in  the  ground,  the  barley  begins  to 
sprout,  but  this  vegetation  is  stopped  by  putting  it  into  a 
kiln,  where  it  is  well  dried  by  a  gentle  heat. 

LESSON  XL 

FOREIGN  WHITE   WINE. 

Qualities  of  White  Wine. 

It  is  yellowish.  It  is  artificial. 

bright.  semi-transparent, 

fluid.  sapid, 

liquid.  medicinal, 

fermented.  stimulating, 

spirituous.  clear, 

intoxicating.  strengthening, 

heating.  yielding  to  the  touch, 
vegetable. 

Wine  is  made  from  the  grape,  the  fruit  of  the  vine, 
which  is  cultivated  in  vineyards.  "The  season  of  its  gath- 
eruig  is  called  the  vintage.  The  grapes,  when  gathered, 
are  placed  in  a  wine  press,  by  which  the  juice  is  ex- 
pressed ;  this  juice  undergoes  a  fermentation,  and  becomes 
wine.  This  is  the  second  fermentation  which  vegetable 
matter  undergoes;  it  is  called  the  vinoics  fermentation, 
from  its  producing  .wine ;  vinum  being  the  Latin  word 
for  wine. 


VINEGAR. 


129 


LESSON    XII. 


VINEGAR. 


Qualities  of  Vinegar. 

It  is  vegetable. 


It  is  acid. 

orange-brown  color. 

liquid. 

fluid. 

yielding  to  the  touch. 

penetrating. 

stimulating. 

Uses. — To  flavor  food ;  for  pickling ;  for  medicine, 


artificial. 

medicinal. 

odorous. 

preservative. 

semi-transparent. 

fermented. 


LESSON  XIII. 


INK. 

Qualities  of  Ink. 
It  is  black.  It  is  astringent, 

useful.  fluid, 

opaque.  yielding  to  the  touch, 

artificial.  poisonous, 

liquid. 

Ink  is  made  of  galls,  sulphate  of  iron,  gum,  and  water. 
Galls  are  found  upon  the  oak ;  they  are  occasioned  by  a 
little  insect,  which  pierces  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  lays  its 
eggs  in  the  hole  which  it  has  formed.  The  torn  vessels  of 
the  tree  discharge  a  portion  of  their  contents ;  this  harden- 
ing, forms  at  first  a  defence  for  the  eggs,  and  subsequently 
food  for  the  caterpillars  they  produce  ;  these  latter  eat 
their  way  out  of  their  confinement,  before  they  change  into 
the  perfect  insect.  Iron  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid  is 
6* 


130  FOURTH   STEP. LESSON   XIV. 

called  sulphate  of  iron ;  when  this  is  applied  to  the  acid 
of  the  galls  it  becomes  black,  upon  which  quality  the  utility 
of  ink  depends.  A  little  gum  is  added,  to  cause  the  ink  to 
adhere  to  the  paper.  "^ 


LESSON    XIV. 

MILK. 

Qaalities 

of  Milk. 

It  is  white. 

It  is  natural. 

fluid. 

opaque. 

liquid. 

yielding  to  the  touch. 

wholesome. 

emollient. 

sweet. 

nutritious. 

An  animal  substance.        When  fresh,  it  is  warm. 

TIses. — For  animals  to  feed  their  young ;  for  making 
cheese  and  butter ;  to  drink. 

The  milk  of  cows  is  that  most  generally  used  by  man. 
Invalids  drink  the  milk  of  asses.  In  Tartary  the  milk  of 
mares  is  used ;  in  Switzerland  that  of  goats ;  in  the  northern 
countries  that  of  reindeer ;  in  Arabia  that  of  camels. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  a  very  improving  and  inter- 
esting exercise,  to  take  two  substances  and  compare  them 
together — as  water  and  milk — requiring  the  class  to  find 
out  in  what  respects  they  are  both  alike.  They  are  both 
fluid,  hquid,  cool,  incompressible,  penetrating,  natural,  &c. 
The  qualities  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  should  then  be  mehtioned.  The  water  is  transpa- 
rent, the  milk  is  opaque ;  the  water  is  colorless ;  the  milk 
is  white ;  the  water  is  tasteless,  the  milk  is  sweet,  <&c. 

Liquids  possess  qualities  by  which  they  are  very  clearly 


ON   METALS.  131 

distinguished  from  other  substances.  They  may  all  become 
sohd ;  they  are  all  fluid  and  incompressible ;  their  parts 
easily  separate,  forming  into  sj)heres  or  drops  ;  they  pene- 
trate into  the  pores  of  substances;  and  they  find  their  own 
level.  The  last  circumstance  can  easily  be  proved  to  the 
pupils  by  means  of  a  siphon.  Having  named  the  proper- 
ties common  to  all  liquids,  the  class  should  also  be  required 
to  mention  the  qualities  peculiar  to  each^  as  in  the  lessons 
on  spices. 

Water  is  transparent,  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous, 
bright. 

Oil  is  yellowish,  thick,  emollient,  semi-transparent, 
greasy,  uiflammable. 

Beer  is  orange  colored,  bitter,  spirituous,  artificial,  fer- 
mented. 

White  wine  is  bright,  yellowish,  intoxicating,  stimulat- 
ing, fermented. 

Vinegar  is  acid,  orange  colored,  semi-transparent,  fer- 
mented. 

Ink  is  black,  bright,  opaque,  artificial. 

Milk  is  white,  opaque,  sweet,  nourishing,  natural. 

The  children  might  determine  which  of  these  would 
form  a  particular  class  within  the  general  class  of  liquids ; 
as  beer,  wine,  vinegar,  united  together,  because  they  are 
fermented  liquids. 


132  FOURTH   STEP. — OX   METALS. 

ON  METALS. 

GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON   THE  MHTALS. 

Occurrence. — The  metals  form  a  class  of  bodies  belong- 
ing to  the  mineral  kingdom.  They  are  seldom  found  in  a 
pure  or  uncombined  state,  but  are  almost  always  united  to 
various  other  substances.  The  compounds  so  formed  have 
not  the  distinguishing  characters  of  metals,  and  they  are 
termed  ores, — as  lead  ore,  iron  ore,  &c.  Some  of  the 
metals  are  found  in  a  pure  state,  when  they  are  termed 
native,  as  native  gold,  native  mercury,  &c.,  &c.  In  their 
pure  state  metals  are  supposed  to  be  simple  substances,  or 
elements, — that  is,  not  to  be  compounds,  or  mixtures  of 
other  bodies.  Iron,  for  example,  is  regarded  as  an  ele- 
ment, because  it  cannot  be  made  by  the  union  of  other 
substances,  nor  can  any  substance  different  from  itself  be 
obtained  from  it. 

Distingxiishing  Characters. — The  metals  are  distin- 
guished from  all  other  bodies  by  possessing  the  following 
characters: — ^They  have  (when  the  surface  is  clean  and  un- 
tarnished) a  peculiar  brightness,  termed  the  metallic  lustre ; 
they  are  good  conductors  of  heat,  so  that,  if  heat  is  applied 
to  one  part  of  a  piece  of  metal,  it  is  rapidly  conveyed  to 
every  portion  ;  and  they  are  also  conductors  of  electricity, 
hence  the  employment  of  copper  rods  to  convey  the  light- 
ning (which  might  otherwise  destroy  a  building)  safely  into 
the  ground.  Many  compound  mineral  bodies  that  are  not 
metals  also  possess  metallic  lustre,  but  are  not  conductors 
of  heat  or  electricity. 


GENERAL  observatio:n^s.  133 

Reflectors  of  Light. — The  lustre  of  metals  depends  upon 
their  power  of  reflecting  or  throwing  back  the  light  which 
falls  upon  them.  The  light  from  the  sun,  or  any  other 
source,  may,  w^hen  it  falls  upon  a  substance,  pass  through  it, 
as  is  the  case  with  glass — the  body  is  then  termed  transpa- 
rent ;  or  it  may  be  absorbed  by  it,  as  is  the  case  with  a 
dull  black  board,  or  with  velvet — the  substance  is  then  said 
to  be  opaque ;  or  it  may  be  thrown  back  again,  or  reflected. 
This  power  of  reflection  is  possessed  by  metals  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  by  any  other  bodies ;  therefore,  when 
it  is  wished  to  throw  as  much  as  possible  of  the  light  of  a 
flame  in  one  particular  direction,  a  reflector  of  metal  is  em- 
ployed, as  in  carriage  lamps,  lighthouses,  &c. 

Reflectors  of  Heat. — The  heat  which  accompanies  the 
light  of  the  sun,  or  that  thrown  out  by  a  fire  or  any  heated 
body,  is  reflected  by  polished  metals  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  light ;  therefore  bright  metallic  surfaces  are  used 
in  reflecting-ovens,  meat  screens,  &c.  When  metals  are 
employed  as  reflectors  of  heat  or  light,  it  is  requisite  that 
they  should  be  brightly  polished,  as  it  is  only  when  in  that 
state  that  they  reflect  well. 

Conductors  of  Heat. — The  metals  are  better  conductors 
of  heat  than  any  other  solid  bodies,  a  circumstance  which 
occasions  several  of  the  peculiar  efiects  produced  by  them. 
If  the  hand  is  placed  upon  a  piece  of  metal  somewhat  cooler 
than  itself,  the  natural  warmth  is  rapidly  abstracted  and 
conveyed  to  all  parts  of  the  metal ;  hence  metals  are  fre- 
quently spoken  of  as  cold  substances;  if,  on  the  contrary, 
the  hand  is  placed  on  a  piece  of  metal  warmer  than  the 
body,  it  imparts  its  heat  with  equal  facility,  the  portion 


134  FOUBTH   STEP. ON    METALS. 

cooled  having  its  temperature  rapidly  restored  by  the  heat 
from  the  surrounding  parts ;  it  follows  that  metals  slightly 
warmer  than  the  hand  feel  hot,  and  will  inflict  more  severe 
burns  than  non-conducting  substances  at  a  much  higher 
temperature. 

Conductors  of  Electricity. — ^The  power  of  conducting 
electricity  exists  in  metals  to  an  infinitely  greater  degree 
than  in  any  other  substances.  It  is  one  of  their  properties 
most  important  to  man.  The  natural  electricity  of  the 
thunder  clouds  is  safely  conveyed  into  the  ground  by  a 
lightning  conductor  of  copper,  and  the  electricity  artificially 
produced  is  conveyed  instantaneously  thousands  of  miles 
by  the  wires  of  the  electric  telegraph,  which,  by  causing 
the  points  of  two  magnetic  needles  to  be  directed  as  re- 
quired to  either  side,  produces  signs  which  stand  for  letters, 
and  thus  conveys  messages  immense  distances  in  an  infinite- 
ly short  space  of  time. 

Opacity. — ^The  metals  are  more  opaque  than  other 
bodies.  Even  when  beaten  into  thin  leaves,  they  do  not 
allow  light  to  pass  through.  Silver  leaf,  for  example,  only 
To  oVo  0  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is  perfectly  opaque. 
The  gold  leaf  of  commerce,  which  is  about  yy  oVoo  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  is  transparent.  On  looking  through  it 
against  the  light,  all  objects  are  readily  seen,  having  the 
same  appearance  as  if  looked  at  through  green  glass. 

Specific  Gravity  or  Weight. — The  weight  of  the  metals 
varies  greatly ;  some  of  them  are  the  heaviest  bodies 
known,  while  others  are  so  light  that  they  will  float  on 
water.  These  latter,  however,  are  not  common,  being  only 
known  to  experimental  chemists.     In  the   following  list, 


GENERAL    OESEKVATIONS. 


135 


the  specific  gravity  of  the  more  important  metals  only  is 
given  ; 


Platinum, 

22.069 

Gold, 

•             • 

.      19.250 

Mercury, 

13.600 

Lead, 

. 

.      11.381 

Silver, 

10.470 

Copper,     . 

. 

89.00 

Iron  (wrought). 

78.00 

Tin, 

. 

73.00 

Zinc, 

71.00 

Aluminum, 

. 

25.00 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  common  metals  is  as 
follows : 


Lead,  one  cubic  foot  weighs,     . 
Copper  (cast),      .... 

Brass, 

Steel, 

Wrought  iron  (closely  hammered). 


710  lbs. 
549 
623 
490 

485 


Wrought  iron, 475 

Cast  iron, 450 

Zinc,  439 


Hardness — The  metals  vary  very  much  in  hardness. 
Some  of  the  more  uncommon  are  sufficiently  soft  to  be 
moulded  easily  by  the  fingers.  Lead  can  be  scratched  by 
the  nail;  tin,  zinc,  gold,  and  silver  may  be  cut  with  a  knife; 
copper  is  harder,  and  iron  greatly  surpasses  all  common 
metals  in  this  respect. 

Brittleness. — Some  few  of  the  metals,  as  antimony  and 
bismuth,  are  so  brittle  that  they  may  be  powdered,  and 
cast  iron  and  cast  zinc  are  readily  broken. 

MaUeabUUy. — Others,  on  being  hammered,  spread  out 


136  FOURTH   STEP. OX   METALS. 

into  thin  leaves.  Gold  possesses  this  property  in  the  high- 
est degree.  It  may  be  beaten  into  leaves  so  thin  that, 
although  quite  free  from  visible  holes,  sixty  square  inches 
wiil  not  weigh  one  grain;  and  300,000  of  the  leaves,  if 
piled  on  each  other,  would  not  exceed  an  inch  in  thickness. 
In  addition  to  gold — silver,  platinum,  copper,  zinc,  and  lead 
furnish  examples  of  malleable  metals. 

Ductility. — The  malleable  metals  are  also  ductile — that 
is,  they  can  be  drawn  out  into  wires.  Gold  is  one  of  the 
most  ductile  of  the  metals, — a  single  grain  may  be  drawn 
out  into  a  wire  550  feet  long.  Silver,  platinum,  iron,  cop- 
per, zinc,  tin,  and  lead  are  also  ductile.  The  method 
adopted  for  drawing  metals  into  wires  is  to  form  the  metal 
into  a  bar  or  cylinder :  this  is  drawn  by  great  force  through 
a  hole  in  a  steel  plate,  somewhat  smaller  than  itself,  and  is 
consequently  lessened  in  size  and  increased  in  length  by 
the  operation.  It  is  then  drawn  through  a  still  smaller 
hole  ;  again  through  one  still  less,  and  so  on,  until  the  wire 
is  of  the  degree  of  fineness  required. 

Tenacity. — The  strength  of  wires  does  not,  as  might  be 
imagined,  correspond  with  the  ductility  of  the  metals  of 
which  they  are  formed.  Iron,  when  made  into  steel,  is  by 
far  the  most  tenacious  metal ;  its  wire  is  stronger  than  one 
of  equal  size  formed  from  any  other  metal,  although,  in 
point  of  ductility,  it  is  surpassed  by  gold,  silver,  and  plati- 
num. The  tenacity  of  some  of  the  metals  greatly  surpasses 
that  of  all  other  substances.  The  following  list  shows  the 
number  of  tons  which  a  rod  one  inch  square  is  capable  of 
holding  up  before  breaking : 


GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS.  137 

Lead,  about |  of  a  ton. 

Till,  "  2  tons. 

Cast  iron,  nearly, 9     " 

Copper,  15     " 

Bar  iron,  25     " 

Steel,  59     " 

Fusibility, — All  the  metals  are  capable  of  being  melted 
or  fused  by  heat,  although  they  vary  very  much  in  their 
degrees  of  fusibility.  The  heat  that  always  exists  in  tem- 
perate climates  is  sufficient  to  melt  one  metal — mercury; 
but  in  the  colder  regions  of  the  earth,  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  low,  it  assumes  the  solid  form.  Of  the  other  com- 
mon  metals,  tin,  lead,  and  zinc  melt  below  a  red  heat;  cop- 
per, silver,  and  gold  require  a  strong  red  or  white  heat ; 
cast  iron  melts  at  a  bright  white  heat ;  pure  wrought  iron 
is  one  of  the  least  fusible,  and  requires  the  greatest  degree 
of  heat  that  can  be  obtained  from  a  smith's  forge  to 
melt  it. 

Volatility. — Several  of  the  metals  are  volatile,  rising  in 
vapor  when  heated.  Mercury  slowly  evaporates  at  all  tem- 
peratures above  the  natural  heat  of  the  human  body,  and 
boils  away  rapidly  below  redness ;  zinc  also  is  volatile  at  a 
high  red  heat ;  the  other  common  metals  are  fixed  in  the  fire. 

Compounds  of  the  Metals, — The  metals  can  be  united 
not  only  with  each  other,  but  with  several  of  the  non- 
metallic  elements,  as  sulphur,  carbon,  &c.  When  the 
metals  are  melted  together,  the  compounds  are  called 
ALLOYS.  These  possess  the  characters  of  metals,  and  are 
of  great  use  in  the  arts.  The  most  important  alloys  are — 
brass,  formed  of  copper  and  zinc ;  pewter,  of  tin,  copper, 
&c. ;   German  silver,  of  nickel,  copper,  and  zinc ;   solder, 


188  FOURTH    STEP. — METALS. 

of  tin,  lead,  &c.  When  mercury  is  present,  the  name 
amalgam  is  given  to  the  compound ;  the  most  important 
amalgam  is  one  of  tin,  used  for  silvering  looking  glasses. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  properties  of  alloys  that 
they  generally  melt  more  readily  than  either  of  the  metals 
of  which  they  are  formed.  The  use  of  solder  by  plumb- 
ers and  workers  in  tin,  zinc,  &c.,  mainly  depends  upon  its 
being  more  easily  melted  than  the  metals  which  it  is  em- 
ployed to  unite. 

The  compounds  of  the  metals  with  the  non-metallic 
substances  are  very  important.  When  the  metals  unite 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  compounds  are  formed  termed 
rusts  or  oxides.  Some  metals  have  little  disposition  to 
unite  wnth  oxygen — that  is,  to  rust;  hence  they  remain 
untarnished :  as  gold,  silver,  and  mercury.  Others,  as 
zinc  and  lead,  form  a  thin  layer  of  rust  on  the  surface, 
which  protects  the  metal  beneath  from  further  change. 
Otliers,  as  iron,  rust  or  oxidize  only  in  damp  air» 

Many  of  the  metals  unite  with  sulphur,  forming,  as 
before  observed,  compounds  called  sulphurets,  or  sulphates. 
The  common  ores  of  lead  and  copper  are  sulphurets  of 
those  metals.  Silver,  although  k  does  not  rust  in  pure  air, 
unites  quickly  with  any  sulphur  that  may  be  present,  either 
fiom  the  escape  of  coal  gas  or  from  any  decaying  animal 
Bul)stances,  and  becomes  tarnished  by  the  formation  of  a 
thin  layer  of  black  sulphuret  of  silver. 

General  Conversation  on  the  Metals, 

REMARK. 

In  giving  the  following  lessons,  it  is  desirable  to  prot 


GOLD.  139 

sent  the  specimens  to  the  class  in  their  several  natural  and 
artilicial  states.  The  teacher  should  be  particularly  care- 
ful to  direct  the  attention  of  the  children  to  those  qualities 
in  the  metal  under  consideration,  upon  which  its  uses  de- 
pend, leading  them  to  trace  the  adaptation  of  qualities  to 
certain  uses. 

LESSON  XV. 

GOLD. 

Qualities  of  Gold, 

It  is  a  perfect  metal.  It  is  pliable, 
malleable.*     1.  compact, 

ductile.     2.  yellow, 

tenacious.     3.  solid, 

heavy.     4.  opaque, 

indestructible.  brilliant. 

*  A  solid  piece  of  gold  and  some  leaf  gold  should  be  presented  to  the 
class,  and  the  extreme  lightness  and  thinness  of  the  leaf  may  be  felt. 

Teacher. — How  was  the  gold  made  so  thin  ? 

Children. — It  was  beaten  out. 

Teacher. — With  what,  do  you  think  ? 

Children. — ^With  a  hammer. 

Teacher. — All  things  that  can  be  thus  extended  by  beating  are  called 
malleable.  Could  glass  be  thus  beaten  out  ?  Could  chalk  ?  Camphor  ? 
What  qualities  prevent  them  from  being  malleable  ? 

Children. — Glass  is  brittle.     Chalk  is  crumbling. 

Teacher. — What  qualities  in  gold  do  you  think  render  it  malleable  ? 

Children. — Its  being  tenacious. 

Teacher. — What  other  quality  in  gold  depends  upon  its  being  tena* 
tious  ? 

Children. — It  is  ductile. 

2'eacher. — Ductile  means  capable  of  being  drawn  out. 


140  FOUETH   STEP. — METALS. 

It  is  fusible.  It  is  reflective, 
incombustible,  except  sonorous. 

by  electricity.  Not  affected  by  any  ncid 
soft,    compared    with        but  aqua  regia.* 

other  metals. 

It  is  considered  a  perfect  metal,  because  it  does  not 
lose  any  of  its  weight  when  fused,  nor  suffer  any  change. 
Most  metals  become  oxydated.f 

When  the  children  understand  fully  the  different  quali- 
ties, the  teacher  may  mention  to  them  the  facts  that  prove 
the  extraordinary  degree  in  which  the  peculiar  qualities 
exist  in  the  metal. 

1.  Malleable.  A  grain  of  gold,  the  size  of  a  pin's  head, 
may  be  beaten  out  to  cover  a  space  of  fifty  square  inches. 

2.  Ductile.  A  grain  of  gold  can  be  drawn  out  to  cover 
a  wire  of  352  feet  in  length ;  a  guinea  can  be  drawn  out 
to  reach  nine  miles  and  a  half. 

3.  Tenacious.  A  wire  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
will  support  500  pounds  without  breaking. 

4.  Heavy.  It  is  nineteen  times  heavier  than  water  of 
the  same  bulk. 

Uses  of  Gold. 
When  alloyed  J  with  copper,  gold  is  used  as  coin,  and 

*  Aqua  regia  (royal  water)  is  a  mixture  of  muriatic  acid  and  nitric 
acid. 

\  Substances  are  oxydated  when  they  are  combined  with  a  certain 
portion  of  oxygen. 

\  The  combinations  of  metals  with  each  other  are  called,  in  chemis* 
iry,  allmfi  ;  but  this  term  is  commonly  employed  to  designate  those  sub* 
•tanccs  that  lessen  the  value  of  any  with  which  they  are  united. 


GOLD.  141 

for  ornamental  purposes ;  for  the  latter  it  is  fitted  by  its 
brilliancy  and  beauty,  and  also  because  it  is  not  liable  to 
tarnish. 

The  gold  used  in  coinage,  called  standard  gold,  consists 
of  a  combination  of  about  twenty-two  parts  of  gold,  and 
two  of  copper. 

Gold  thread  is  made  by  covering  silk  or  silver  with 
gold  beaten  very  thin. 

Gilding  is  the  art  of  covering  the  surface  of  a  sub- 
stance with  gold  ;  this  is  effected  by  applying  it  in  a  state 
of  leaf,  or  liquid  gold,  to  a  surface  covered  by  a  cement. 

Quicksilver  unites  with  gold,  communicating  to  it  a 
portion  of  its  own  fluidity ;  it  has  from  this  circumstance 
been  used  in  gilding  buttons — an  effect  which  is  produced 
very  rapidly  by  the  following  process:  The  metals  are 
mixed  together,  and  the  buttons  immersed  in  the  com- 
pound. They  are  then  exposed  to  a  great  heat,  by  which 
the  quicksilver  is  evaporated,  and  the  gold  is  left  upon  the 
buttons. 

The  purple  color  used  in  painting  porcelain  is  obtained 
from  gold. 

Gold  is  beaten  into  leaves  upon  a  smooth  block  of  mar- 
ble fitted  into  a  wooden  frame,  about  two  feet  square  ;  on 
three  sides  there  is  a  high  ledge,  and  the  front  has  a  flap 
of  leather  attached  to  it,  which  the  workman  uses  as  an 
apron  to  preserve  the  fragments  that  fall  off.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  animal  membrane  used  in  the  operation. 
For  interlaying  with  the  gold  at  first,  the  smoothest  and 
closest  vellum  is  procured;  and  when  the  gold  becomes 
thin,  this  is  exchanged  for  much  finer  skin,  made  of  the 


142  FOUKTH    STEP. ^METALS. 

entrails  of  oxen  prepared  for  this  purpose,  and  hence  called 
goldbeaters''  skin:  the  whole  is  covered  with  parchment, 
to  prevent  the  hammer  from  injuring  it.  After  the  gold 
has  been  reduced  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  thinness,  it  is 
put  between  paper  which  has  been  well  smoothed  and 
rubbed  with  red  bole,  in  order  to  prevent  it  adhering  to 
the  gold. 

Geographical  and  Geological  Situation  of  Gold, 

Gold  is  found  principally  in  hot  climates,  either  native 
or  as  an  ore.  A  metal  is  called  native  when  it  occurs  in 
nature  pure,  and  an  ore  when  mixed  with  other  substances. 
Gold  is  found  in  mines,  in  Brazil,  Peru,  Mexico,  and  Califor- 
nia. Part  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa  is  called  the  Gold 
Coast,  from  the  gold  dust  brought  down  by  the  natives  to 
trade  with.  A  great  quantity  of  gold  is  obtained  in  the 
form  of  fine  sand,  from  American  and  African  rivers ;  and 
in  small  quantities  from  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the 
Rhone.  It  is  supposed  to  be  carried  down  by  the  moun- 
tain torrents.  The  wandering  tribes  of  gypsies  employ 
themselves  in  washing  it  from  the  beds  of  European  rivers. 
The  Himalaya  mountains  in  Asia,  are  rich  in  gold.  It  some- 
times occurs  in  the  veins  which  run  through  mountains, 
and  sometimes  in  rounded  masses  in  soils  that  are  evi- 
dently the  ruins  of  rocks.  The  mines  which  formerly 
yielded  the  largest  quantities  of  gold  were  those  of  Peru 
and  Lima ;  the  principal  in  Europe  are  those  of  Hungary 
and  Saltzburg.  There  have  been  discovered  large  quantities 
of  gold  in  California  and  in  Australia,  which  has  caused  a 
comparative  abundance  of  this  metal.    The  mode  of  ex- 


SILVER.  143 

trading  gold  from  the  ore  is  by  reducing  the  whole  to  a 
fine  powder,  and  mixing  it  with  quicksilver.  The  latter 
unites  with  every  particle  of  gold,  but,  being  incapable  of 
forming  a  combination  with  any  but  metallic  substances,  it 
separates  the  gold  from  the  earth  with  which  it  Is  inter- 
mixed. The  quicksilver,  which  has  absorbed  the  gold,  is 
then  evaporated  by  means  of  heat,  leaving  the  pure  metal 
in  the  vessel. 

LESSON  XVL 

SILVER. 

Qualities  of  Silver. 

It  is  malleable.     1.  It  is  white, 

ductile.     2.  solid, 

tenacious.     3.  compact, 

heavy.     4.  natural, 

indestructible.  brilliant, 

fusible.  reflective, 

soft.  sweetly  sonorous, 

flexible.  not  aftected  by  com- 

a  perfect  metal.  mon  acids, 
opaque. 

1.  Malleable.     Silver  can  be  reduced  to  a  degree  of 
thinness  nearly  equal  to  that  of  which  gold  is  capable. 

2.  Ductile.     It  can  also  be  drawn  out  into  the  finest 
wire. 

3.  Tenacious.     A  wire  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness will  support  377  pounds  without  breaking. 

4.  Heavy.     It   is    about    eleven    times   heavier    than 
water. 


144  FOURTH    STEP. METALS. 

Uses  of  Silver. 

Silver  is  used  for  coin,  and  is  then  combined  with  cop- 
per, to  render  it  harder  and  better  adapted  to  receive  a 
fine  and  sharp  impression  on  being  cast.  It  does  not  lose 
its  white  color  by  its  mixture  with  copper.  The  same 
alloy  is  employed  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Silver  is  much  used  as  a  casing  to  copper  utensils,  to 
render  them  more  pleasing  to  the  sight,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  the  poison  extracted  by  acids  from 
copper.  The  most  permanent  plating  is  effected  by  tak- 
ing two  thin  plates  of  silver  and  copper,  the  former  in  the, 
proportion  of  one  to  twelve  of  the  latter ;  a  little  pow- 
dered borax  is  placed  between  the  two  metals  to  promote 
their  fusion ;  and  then,  after  being  exposed  to  a  white 
heat,  they  will  be  found  firmly  united.  The  substance  is 
passed  between  rollers  till  the  whole  is  of  the  proper  thick- 
ness for  the  intended  manufacture. 

Silver  dissolved  in  aquafortis  (nitric  acid)  yields  crys- 
tals, which,  being  afterward  melted  in  crucibles,  form  what 
is  called  lunar  caustic.  This  preparation  is  of  considerable 
value  in  surgical  operations,  being  employed  to  burn  away 
diseased  flesh,  and  also  for  consuming  warts,  wens,  and 
other  excrescences  of  the  skin.  Indelible  or  permanent 
ink,  used  for  marking  linen,  is  made  by  dissolving  nitrate 
of  silver  (lunar  caustic)  in  water,  and  adding  gum.  The 
yellow  color  employed  in  painting  porcelain  is  obtained 
from  silver. 

Geographical  and  Geological  Situation  of  Silver, 
Silver  is  found,  both  native  and  as  an  ore,  in  mines  and 


QUICKSILVEK.  145 

veins.  South  America  is  tlie  country  richest  in  silver 
mines.  It  is  also  found  in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Norway, 
Hungary,  and  England  ;  but  the  mines  of  Mexico  and 
Peru  furnish  annually  ten  times  more  than  all  those  of 
Europe  together.  So  poisonous  are  the  exhalations  from 
the  mines  of  Peru,  that  many  thousands  of  Indians  have 
perished  in  them,  and  the  cattle  that  graze  on  the  outside 
are  aifected  by  their  malignant  vapors.  This  metal  is  also 
found  in  several  localities  in  our  own  country,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Washoe  region  (on  the  bor- 
ders of  California  and  Nevada  Territory),  Lake  Superior, 
Arizona,  North  Carolina,  and  from  the  gold  of  California 
and  Colorado. 

The  ores  of  silver  are  very  numerous,  and  various 
methods  are  employed  in  diflerent  countries  to  separate 
this  metal  from  its  ore.  In  Mexico  and  Peru  the  mineral 
is  pounded,  roasted,  washed,  and  then  mixed  with  mercury 
in  vessels  filled  with  water,  a  mill  being  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  more  perfectly  agitating  the  liquid.  This 
causes  the  silver  to  unite  with  the  mercury,  and  then, 
being  submitted  to  heat,  the  latter  is  evaporated.  The 
pure  metal  is  afterward  melted  and  cast  into  ingots  or  bars 
of  80  or  90  lbs.  each. 

LESSON   XYIL 

QUICKSILVER,    OR   MERCURY. 

Qualities  of  Quic7csilvei\  or  Mercury, 

It  is  heavy.     1.  It  is  cold.     3. 

fluid.     2.  divisible.     4, 

7 


146  FOURTH    STEP. METALS. 

It  is  volatile  when  heated.      It  is  dilatable  by  heat, 
white.  medicinal 

brilliant.     5.  natural, 

opaque.  mineral 

least  tenacious  of  all  bodies. 

1.  Weight.  Nearly  fourteen  times  heavier  than  water. 
It  is  the  heaviest  known  fluid. 

2.  Fluid.  It  always  retains  its  fluidity  in  our  temper- 
ature ;  but  near  the  poles  it  congeals,  and  then  is  malle- 
able, ductile,  and  tenacious. 

3.  Cold.  It  is  the  coldest  of  all  fluids,  and  the  hottest 
when  boiling. 

4.  It  is  capable  of  division,  by  the  slightest  effort,  into 
an  indefinite  number  of  particles,  which  are  of  a  spherical 
shape. 

5.  The  peculiar  brilliancy  of  metals  has  given  rise  to 
the  term  metallic  lustre. 

Uses  of  Quicksilver. 

Quicksilver  penetrates  and  softens  other  metals,  losing 
its  own  fluidity,  and  forming  a  }cind  of  paste  called  amcU- 
gam.  This  affinity  or  attraction  that  it  has  for  other 
metals  makes  it  exceedingly  useful  in  separating  them 
from  substances  with  which  they  are  found  combined ; 
they  are  drawn  from  their  ores  and  unite  with  the  mer< 
cury,  and  the  latter  being  volatilized,  the  pure  metal  re* 
mains.  Quicksilver  is  easily  affected  by  the  atmosphere, 
and  is  on  this  account  used  in  thermometers  and  barome- 
ters. The  Thermometer  is  an  instrument  constructed  in 
the  following  manner :  A  tube  of  glass,  terminating  in  a 


QUICKSILVER,  147 

hollow  ball  which  contains  mercury,  is  plunged  into  boiling 
water,  which  causes  the  mercury  to  expand  and  rise  to  a 
certain  height.  At  this  point,  which  is  called  boiling  heat, 
the  tube  is  broken  off  and  hermetically  sealed  ;  *  the  freez> 
ing  point  is  then  ascertained  and  marked,  and  the  interven- 
ing space  graduated.  The  thermometer,  by  marking  the 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  quicksilver,  indicates 
the  increase  and  decrease  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 

To  form  the  barometer,  a  glass  tube,  open  at  one  end, 
and  filled  with  quicksilver,  is  plunged  with  its  open  end 
downward  into  a  bowl  containing  some  of  the  same  fluid. 
Part  of  the  mercury  in  the  tube  flows  into  the  vessel,  leav- 
ing a  space  to  which  the  air  cannot  gain  access.  A  vacuum 
being  thus  formed,  the  atmosphere  acts  upon  the  mercury 
in  the  bowl ;  when  heavy,  causing  it  to  rise  in  the  tube, 
and  when  light  (the  pressure  being  decreased),  allowing  it 
to  descend.  The  barometer,  by  thus  showing  the  weight 
of  the  air,  indicates  the  probability  of  wet  or  dry  weather. 
For  when  the  atmosphere  is  light,  it  no  longer  supports 
the  vapor  and  clouds  which  float  in  it,  and  they  conse- 
quently descend  toward  the  earth  ;  but  when  the  air  is 
more  dense,  they  are  borne  up,  and  we  have  fine  weather. 
The  elevation  of  mountains  is  also  ascertained  by  means 
of  the  barometer ;  for  as  it  is  known  that  the  rarity  of  the 

*  In  order  to  seal  anything  hermetieallj,  the  neck  of  a  glass  tube  is 
heated  till  on  the  point  of  melting,  and  then  with  a  pair  of  hot  pincers 
it  is  closely  twisted  together,  by  which  means  the  air  is  excluded.  Her- 
metically is  derived  from  Hermes^  the  deity  of  ancient  mythology  who 
was  thought  to  preside  over  the  arts  and  sciences,  particularly  chemistry. 


148  FOURTH   STEP. METALS. 

atmosphere  increases  in  proportion  to  the  ascent,  the  height 
is  easily  calculated. 

Quicksilver  is  also  used  for  coating  mirrors.  The  pro- 
cess is  effected  in  the  following  maimer:  a  sheet  of  tin  foil 
the  size  of  the  plate  of  glass  is  placed  evenly  on  a  smooth 
block  of  stone  ;  over  this  is  poured  some  quicksilver,  which 
is  carefully  spread  upon  it  with  a  feather  or  rubber  of  linen. 
Tin,  in  amalgamating  with  mercury,  quickly  forms  an  oxide 
of  a  black  appearance ;  this  being  removed,  more  of  the 
fluid  is  poured  upon  it.  The  glass  is  then  held  horizontal- 
ly, and  carefully  spread  over  the  amalgam,  sweeping  before 
it  the  superfluous  mercury,  and  any  more  oxide  that  may 
have  formed.  Weights  are  then  placed  upon  the  glass^ 
and  after  having  remained  several  days,  the  mixture  ad- 
heres firmly  and  forms  the  mirror. 

Vermilion,  used  in  coloring  seahng  wax,  and  the  medi- 
cine called  calomel,  are  preparations  of  this  metal. 

Geographical  and  Geological  Situation  of  Quicksilver, 

Quicksilver  is  found  in  the  native  state,  as  globules,  in 
the  cavities  of  mines ;  but  it  is'most  frequently  combined 
with  sulphur,  forming  the  mineral  called  Cinnabar,  which 
is  of  a  red  color.  It  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in 
some  parts  of  California;  the  mines  yielding  2,000,000 
lbs.  avoirdupois  annually. 

The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria,  in  Austria,  are  said  to 
yield  annually  100  tons  ;  those  of  Spain  still  more  ;  but  the 
mines  of  Peru  are  the  richest. 

The  mines  of  Idria  were  accidentally  discovered  about 
three  hundred  years  since.    That  part  of  the  country  was 


LEAD. 


149 


then  much  inhabited  by  coopers ;  one  of  the  men,  when  re^ 
tiring  from  work  in  the  evening  placed  a  new  tub  under 
a  dropping  spring  to  try  if  it  would  hold  water,  and  when 
he  came  in  the  morning  he  found  it  so  heavy  that  he  could 
scarcely  move  it.  On  examination  he  perceived  a  shining, 
ponderous  fluid  at  the  bottom,  which  proved  to  be  quick- 
silver. When  this  circumstance  was  made  known,  a  com- 
pany was  formed  to  discover  and  work  the  mines  from 
whence  the  mercury  had  issued.  In  some  parts  of  the 
mine  it  flows  in  small  springs,  so  that  in  six  hours  as  much 
as  thirty-six  pounds  have  been  collected  ;  in  other  parts  it 
i»  found  diffused  in  small  globules. 

LESSOi^    XVIII. 


LEAD. 


It  is  heavy.     1. 

fusible.     2. 

bright  when  first 
melted  or  cut. 

malleable. 

ductile. 

very  soft.     3. 

pliable. 

livid,  bluish  gray. 

easily  calcined,  that  is. 
reduced  by  heat  to  a 
crumbling  substance. 


Qualities  of  Lead. 

It  is  solid. 

sometimes  amorphous, 
sometimes  crystallized. 
023aque. 
mineral. 

liable  to  tarnish.     4. 
inelastic, 
natural. 
It  makes  a  gray  streak  on 

paper, 
boils  and  evaporates  at 

great  heat. 


1.  Heavy.    It  is  eleven  times  heavier  than  water ;  ra- 
jfier  heavier  than  silver. 


150  FOURTH    STEP. METALS. 

2.  It  melts  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  the  other 
metals. 

3.  It  is  the  softest  of  all  metals. 

4.  Lead  is  not  much  altered  by  being  exposed  either  to 
air  or  water,  though  the  brightness  of  its  surface  is  soon 
lost.  Probably  a  thin  stratum  of  oxide  is  formed  on  tha 
surface,  which  defends  the  rest  of  the  metal  from  corrosion. 

Uses  of  Lead. 

The  calx  *  of  lead  is  the  basis  of  many  colors,  which 
are  obtained  from  it  by  different  degrees  of  heat.  Red 
lead  and  white  lead,  so  much  used  in  paints,  are  the  calces 
of  lead.  They  are  soluble  in  oil,  are  very  poisonous,  and 
occasion  the  ill  health  to  which  painters  are  subject.  The 
oxide  of  lead  also  enters  into  the  composition  of  white 
glass,  rendering  it  clearer ;  it  is  also  used  in  the  glazing 
of  common  earthenware  vessels.  Any  acid  will  extract  a 
poison  from  lead,  and  therefore  the  use  of  it  should  be 
avoided  in  culinary  operations.  It  is  employed  in  glazing 
pottery. 

It  is  also  used  for  gutters  and  pipes  of  houses,  and  for 
cisterns  and  reservoirs  of  water,  because  it  does  not  rust, 
and  is  very  durable. 

The  great  softness  of  lead,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is 
fused,  are  the  properties  which  have  brought  it  so  much 

*  Calx  is  the  dross  formed  on  the  surface  of  lead  when  fused.  This 
name  is  applied  by  chemists  to  those  substances  which  have  been  re- 
duced by  burning  to  a  friable  state.  The  operation  by  which  this  effect 
is  produced  is  called  calcination.  It  is  more  general  now  to  term 
metaiiic  bodies  when  calcined,  oxides,  "" 


LEAD.  151 

into  use.  The  persons  who  work  it  are  called  plumbers,^ 
The  solder  they  use  as  a  cement  is  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the 
latter. 

Great  quantities  of  lead  are  consumed  in  making  shot. 
The  metal  for  this  purpose  is  alloyed  with  arsenic,  to  ren- 
der it  more  hard  and  brittle,  and  capable  of  assuming  a 
perfectly  spherical  shape.  Shot  are  formed  by  dropping 
the  melted  alloy  into  water  from  a  considerable  height, 
through  an  iron  or  copper  frame,  perforated  with  round 
holes,  which  are  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  required 
size  of  the  shot.  Mixed  with  antimony,  lead  is  used  for 
printing  types  ;  and  with  tin  and  copper,  it  forms  pewter. 

Geological  and  Geographical  Situation  of  Lead. 

The  largest  and  perhaps  most  important  lead  mines  in 
the  world  are  found  in  England  and  Wales.  It  is  sup- 
posed, from  relics  and  inscriptions  found  in  these  mines, 
that  they  were  worked  by  the  Romans  when  in  possession 
of  Great  Britain. 

The  principal  mines  in  the  United  States  are  found  in 
Missouri,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa.  It  has  been  found 
in  several  of  the  Atlantic  States,  but  the  mines,  proving 
unprofitable,  have  mostly  been  abandoned. 

Lead  is  plentiful  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  Spain,  France, 
and  Germany. 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  it  is  ever  found  native ;  it 
occurs  frequently  combined  with  sulphur,  when  it  is  called 
galena. 

*  Plumb-er,  from  the  Latin  plumb-wm,  lead. 


152  FOURTH   STEP. METALS. 

When  the  ore  is  brought  out  of  the  mines  it  is  sorted 
and  washed,  to  free  it  from  dirt  and  rubbish  ;  it  is  then 
spread  out,  and  the  best  pieces  separated.  After  the  ore, 
by  picking  and  washing,  has  been  sufficiently  cleansed  from 
extraneous  matter,  it  is  roasted  *  in  a  kind  of  kiln,  to  free 
it  from  the  sulphur  usually  combined  with  it.  The  next 
process  is  to  mix  it  with  a  quantity  of  coke,  and  submit  it 
to  the  smelting  furnace.  In  this  there  are  tap  holes,  which, 
when  the  lead  is  melted,  are  opened,  to  allow  it  to  run  in  a 
fluid  state  into  an  iron  vessel.  The  dross  which  floats  on 
its  surface  is  skimmed  ofi",  and  the  metal  is  taken  out  by 
ladles,  and  poured  into  cast-iron  moulds  with  round  ends. 
It  is  then  called  ^9^^  leacl^  and  is  fit  tor  use. 

LESSON  XIX. 

COPPER. 

Qualities  of  Copper. 

It  is  heavy.     1.  It  is  mineral. 

tenacious,     2.  sometimes  crystallized, 

very  sonorous.  3.                    sometimes  amorphous, 

fusible.     4.  ,^' brilliant, 

elastic.     5.  reflective, 
capable  of  extreme  divis-        sapid. 

ibility.     6.  nauseous  to  the  taste. 

*  Roasting  is  the  process  by  which  the  voh\tile  parts  of  an  ore  are 
evaporated.  Smelting  is  that  by  which  the  pure  metal  is  separated  from 
the  earthy  particles  combined  with  it  in  the  ore.  This  is  done  by  throw- 
ing the  whole  into  a  furnace,  and  mixing  with  it  substances  that  will 
combine  with  the  earthy  parts ;  the  metal,  being  the  heavie.st,  falls  to  the 
bottom,  and  runs  out  by  the  proper  opening  in  its  pure  metallic  state. 


COPPER.  163 

Qualities  of  Copper. 
It  is  malleable.  It  is  hard. 

ductile.  unpleasantly  odorous, 

compact.  solid, 

opaque.  medicinal, 

orange-brown  color.  easily  corroded. 

1.  Heavy.     Copper  is  eight  times  heavier  than  water. 

2.  Tenacious.  A  wire  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness 
will  support  two  hundred  and  ninety-nine  pounds  and  a 
half  without  breaking. 

3.  It  is  the  most  deeply  sonorous  of  all  metals. 

4.  It  is  more  easily  fused  than  iron,  but  less  so  than  gold 
or  silver. 

5.  It  is  the  most  elastic  metal,  next  to  iron. 

6.  A  grain  dissolved  in  ammonia  will  give  a  perceptible 
color  to  more  than  500,000  times  its  weight  in  water. 

The  Uses  of  Copper, 

Tlie  uses  of  copper  are  numerous  and  important. 
When  rolled  into  sheets  between  iron  cylinders,  it  is  used 
to  cover  the  roofs  of  houses,  especially  arsenals  and  manu- 
factories,  where  there  is  liability  to  lire.  The  bottoms  of 
ships  are  coppered  in  order  to  make  them  sail  faster,  and 
to  prevent  shell  fish  from  perforating  the  wood.  Copper  is 
much  used  for  cooking  utensils,  but  great  care- is  necessary, 
for  should  any  acid  or  even  water  be  allowed  to  stand  some 
time  in  the  vessels,  a  poison  is  extracted  ;  but  while  boiling 
this  evil  does  not  arise.  It  is  customary,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent any  danger,  to  line  copper  vessels  with  tin.  Copper 
IS  used  in  the  manufactories  of  gunpowder,  because  it  docs 


154  FOURTH    STEP. METALS. 

not,  like  iron,  give  out  sparks  by  collision.  Having  no 
effect  upon  the  magnetic  needle,  copper  is  found  to  be  the 
best  material  for  the  boxes  and  supports  of  this  delicate 
instrument.  Plates  of  copper  are  sometimes  engraved 
with  a  sharp  instrument  called  a  burin;  sometimes  they 
are  corroded  with  aquafortis  ;  *  in  the  latter  case,  the  cop- 
per is  covered  with  wax,  on  which  the  design  is  sketched 
with  a  pointed  instrument,  the  aquafortis  reaches  the  cop- 
per just  in  those  places  where  the  wax  has  been  removed 
by  the  sketching,  and  eats  into  it.  Verdigris  is  a  rust  of 
copper,  usually  made  from  that  metal  by  corroding  it  with 
vinegar.  There  is  a  large  manufactory  at  Montpelier,  in 
France,  where  verdigris  is  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Copper  plates  and"  the  refuse  of  grapes  are  placed 
alternately  one  upon  another ;  the  latter  speedily  corrode 
the  surface  of  the  metal.  The  verdigris  thus  formed  is 
scraped  off  as  it  collects  on  the  copper ;  it  is  afterward 
dried,  and  packed  in  casks  or  bags.  It  is  chiefly  employed 
in  dying,  and  is  a  most  virulent  poison.  The  alloys  of  cop- 
per are  numerous  and  valuable.  Brass  is  the  most  impor- 
tant ;  it  is  compounded  of  zinc  and  copper,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  three  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.  This 
is  a  very  beautiful  and  useful  substance ;  it  does  not  rust  so 
easily  as  copper ;  it  is  more  ductile  than  either  that  metal 
or  iron,  and  is  therefore  used  in  the  construction  of  musical 
and  mathematical  instruments,  and  in  clockwork.  Sieves 
and  b\ii3ds  are  woven  of  brass  wire  of  extreme  fineness. 
Brass  is  used  both  for  puri)Oses  of  ornament  and  use. 
Cof  per  alloyed  with  tin  forma  bronze ;  it  is  remarkable, 

•  Aquafortia  (»tioiig  water)  is  iiiLiic  acid  diluted  with  water. 


COPPER.  155 

that  when  these  two  metals  are  melted  together,  the  com- 
pound so  produced  is  heavier  than  tlie  weight  of  the  two 
metals  taken  separately.  Bronze  is  very  useful  from  its 
being  extremely  hard,  durable,  and  sonorous ;  it  is  made 
into  cannon  balls,  statues,  &c.  The  metal  of  which  cannon 
are  made  is  also  an  alloy  of  copper  with  tin.  Bell  metal 
consists  of  three  parts  copper  and  one  tin.  Copper  is  the 
principal  ingredient  in  German  silver  and  Chinese  gongs ; 
and  in  small  proportion  it  is  used  to  give  hardness  to  silver 
coin  and  plate. 

Geographical  and  Geological  Situation  of  Copper. 

Copper  is  found  in  Sweden,  Saxony,  Great  Britain, 
America,  and  Australia.  The  copper  region  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior contains  almost  the  only  mines  of  this  metal  that  are 
profitably  worked  in  the  United  States.  The  worn  tools 
found  in  immense  numbers  in  some  of  these  mines,  prove 
that  they  have  been  worked  at  a  remote  period  by  an  un- 
known people.  It  was  one  of  the  metals  earliest  known  ; 
the  Bible  mentions  workers  in  brass  before  the  Flood. 

It  is  found  in  great  variety  of  forms ;  sometimes  in 
masses  of  pure  metal,  but  more  frequently  combined  with 
other  substances,  particularly  sulphur.  The  copper  mines 
of  Anglesea  are  very  productive ;  they  are  situated  on  the 
top  of  a  mountain,  and  form  an  enormous  cavity  more  than 
500  yards  long,  100  broad,  and  100  deep.  The  ore  is  ob- 
tained from  the  mine,  either  by  pickaxes  or  by  blasting  the 
rock  with  gunpowder.  It  is  then  broken  with  a  hammer 
into  small  pieces,  an  operation  which  chiefly  employs  women 
and  children.     After  this,  it  is  piled  on  a  kiln,  to  the  upper 


156  FOURTH    STEP. METALS. 

part  of  which  flues  are  attached,  that  communicate  with 
sulphur  chambers.  The  kiln  is  covered,  and  tlie  fires  light- 
ed in  different  parts,  that  the  ore  may  undergo  the  process 
of  roasting.  The  whole  mass  gradually  kindles,  and  the 
sulphur  which  is  combined  with  the  ore,  being  expelled  in 
fumes  by  the  heat,  is  conveyed  through  the  flues  to  the 
sulphur  chamber.  This  process  occupies  from  three  to  ten 
months,  according  to  the  size  of  the  kilns.  When  the 
operation  is  complete,  or  the  ore  is  freed  from  the  sulphur, 
it  is  submitted  to  the  smelting  houses,  where,  by  the  in- 
tense heat  it  undergoes,  the  pure  metal  is  forced  off  in  a 
fluid  state. 

LESSON    XX. 

IRON. 

Qualities  of  Iron. 

It  is  elastic.     1.  It  is  fusible. 

ductile.     2.  livid  gray  color. 

heavy.     3.  solid. 

tenacious.     4.  susceptible  of  a  high 

hard.     5.  polish. 

malleable.  '-cold. 

liable  to  rust.  sometimes  amorphous. 

sonorous.  sometimes  crystallized. 

mineral. 

1.  In  the  state  of  steel,  it  is  the  most  elastic  of  all 
metals. 

2.  Iron  is  more  ductile  than  gold ;  it  may  be  drawn 
into  a  wire  as  fine  as  human  hair. 

3.  It  is  the  lightest  of  the  common  metals,  except  tin ; 
between  seven  and  eisjht  times  heavier  than  water. 


IKON.  157 

4.  The  most  tenacious  of  the  metals.  A  wh-e  about 
one  tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  will  support  500  pounds 
without  breaking. 

5.  Its  hardness  exceeds  that  of  most  other  metals,  and 
this  is  increased  by  its  being  converted  into  steel. 

Uses  of  Iron. 

Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  all  metals,  and  man  very  early 
became  acquainted  with  its  value.  Moses  speaks  of  fur- 
naces of  iron,  and  of  the  ores  from  which  it  was  extracted. 
By  means  of  this  metal  the  earth  has  been  cultivated, 
houses  and  cities  built,  and  without  it  few  arts  could  be 
practised.  Iron  is  very  abundant  in  nature,  but  it  is  always 
found  mixed  with  some  other  substance.  It  is  then  called 
iron  ore.  Sometimes  it  is  combined  with  clay,  at  other 
times  with  lime,  or  with  flint.  In  order  to  separate  the 
iron  from  its  ore,  intense  heat  is  required;  either  pure  clay, 
lime,  or  silex,  remain  stubborn  in  the  hottest  fires,  but  when 
mixed  in  proper  proportions,  the  one  assists  in  the  fusion 
of  the  other  ;  therefore  there  is  always  thrown  into  the  fur- 
nace with  the  iron  ore  some  earth  that  will  combine  with 
that  in  the  iron  ore.  The  intense  heat  of  the  furnace  is 
kept  up  by  means  of  a  continual  supply  of  air,  rushing  into 
it  from  immense  bellows,  worked  by  machinery.  The 
lime,  clay,  or  flint,  unite  and  form  a  kind  of  slag,  which 
floats  on  the  surface.  At  the  same  time  the  carbon,  or 
pure  charcoal  of  the  fuel,  aided  by  the  limestone,  melts 
the  iron,  which,  being  heavier  than  the  other  substances, 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  and  remains  there  till 
the  workmen  let  it  out  by  a  hole  made  at  the  bottom  of 


158  FOURTH    STEP. METALS.  ^ 

the  furnace,  and  plugged  with  sand.  When  the  workman 
judges  that  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  iron  fused, 
he  displaces  the  plug  with  an  iron  rod,  and  the  melted  iron 
runs  out  like  a  stream  of  liquid  fire,  and  is  conveyed  into 
furrows  made  in  sand,  where  it  cools ;  the  pieces  formed  in 
the  principal  furrows  are  called  sows,  those  in  the  smaller 
furrows  branching  from  them,  pigs.  In  this  state  it  takes 
the  name  of  cast  iron,  and  from  the  process  it  has  under- 
gone, it  is  become  extremely  hard,  and  having  lost  its  tena- 
city, it  resists  the  hammer  and  the  file,  and  is  very  brittle ; 
\t  is  of  a  dark  gray  or  blackish  color.  It  is  used  for  the 
backs  of  chimneys,  grates,  boilers,  pipes,  railroads,  common 
cannon  balls,  &c. 

Cast  iron  contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbon,  and  is 
probably  saturated  with  it.  It  is  converted  into  steel  by 
taking  aw^ay  a  portion  of  its  carbon.  It  is  converted  into 
wrought  iron  by  removing  the  carbon,  and  as  far  as  possi- 
ble other  impurities,  as  sulphur,  phosphorus,  &c.  The  value 
of  wrought  iron  for  machinery,  and  tools  of  all  descriptions, 
is  very  great.  Steel  is  also  much  employed  for  ornamental 
purposes,  on  account  of  the  elegant  polish  it  is  capable  of 
taking. 

Plumbago,  or  black  lead,  which  is  employed  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  pencils,  is  an  ore  of  iron,  containing  nine  parts 
of  carbon  to  one  of  the  metal.  The  bronze  color  used  in 
porcelain  painting  is  an  oxide  of  iron.  Meteoric  stones, 
which  have  been  the  subject  of  so  much  conjecture,  and 
which  are  sometimes  believed  to  be  ejected  from  volcanoes 
in  the  moon,  are  native  iron. 

Iron  is  very  valuable  from  the  magnetic   properties  it 


IRON.  159 

may  acquire.  By  these  it  enables  the  mariner  to  steer 
across  the  ocean,  the  traveller  to  direct  his  course  with 
safety  in  the  pathless  desert,  and  the  miner  to  guide  his 
researches  after  subterraneous  treasures.  The  loadstone, 
or  natural  magnet,  is  an  oxide  of  iron ;  it  communicates 
its  power  to  bars  of  iron  or  steel  when  placed  in  contact 
with  them.  The  artificial  magnet  is  now  always  used,  as 
ft  possesses  and  retains  all  the  properties  of  the  loadstone. 
The  qualities  which  render  it  useful,  are,  its  attraction  for 
iron,  and  its  polarity,  or  the  power  by  which  it  points  to 
the  poles  when  freely  suspended.  One  end  invariably  turns 
Lo  the  north,  and  the  other  to  the  south,  except  when  it 
approaches  the  poles ;  there  the  directive  power  ceases  al- 
together, which  circumstance  constitutes  one  of  the  great 
difficulties  in  navigating  the  Arctic  Sea. 

Geographical  Situation  of  Iron. 

Iron  is  the  most  universally  diffused  of  the  metals.  It 
is  found  in  every  country,  in  greater  or  less  quantities.  It 
is  very  rarely  met  with  in  a  native  state,  but  generally  as  an 
oxide,  or  in  combination  with  sulphuric  or  carbonic  acid. 


LESSON    XXI. 

TIN. 

Qualities  of  Tin. 

It  is  heavy.     1.  It  is  very  httle  elastic, 

soft.     2.  pliable, 

malleable.     3.  easily  cal(;ined. 


160  FOURTH    STEP. METALS. 


Qualities 

of 

Tin. 

is  ductile. 

It 

is  natural. 

fusible. 

mineral. 

white. 

reflective. 

opaque. 

sonorous,  makes  a 

solid. 

crackling  noise. 

brilliant. 

dilatable  by  heat. 

1.  It  is  seven  times  heavier  than  water ;  yet  the  light- 
est of  the  ductile  metals. 

2.  It  is  softer  than  silver,  but  harder  than  lead. 

3.  Tin  may  be  beaten  into  sheets  the  one  thousandth 
part  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

Uses  of  Tin. 

Tin  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  culinary 
utensils ;  they  are  not,  however,  made  of  solid  tin,  but  of 
what  is  called  tin  plate,  which  is  thus  prepared:  Thin  iron 
plates  are  first  well  cleansed,  by  washing  them  in  water  and 
sand ;  they  are  then  dipped  into  melted  tin,  and  afterward 
steeped  in  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  This  pro- 
cess causes  the  tin  not  only  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  iron 
plate,  but  to  penetrate  it,  so  that  the  whole  mass  becomes 
of  a  whitish  color.  Pins  are  made  of  brass  wire,  tinned. 
When  the  pin  is  formed,  a  vessel  is  filled  with  strata 
or  layers  of  tin  plates  between  the  brass  pins ;  the  vessel  is 
then  filled  with  water  and  some  tartaric  acid,  by  means  of 
which  the  tin  is  dissolved ;  after  five  or  six  hours'  boiling, 
the  pins  are  found  uniformly  tinned.  It  is  the  zinc  of  tho 
brass  which  has  an  affinity  for  the  tin,  and  forms  the  union 
which  takes  place.    The  pins  are  afterward  polished  ;  they 


TIN.  161 

are  thrown  into  a  tab  containing  a  quantity  of  bran,  which 
is  set  in  motion  by  the  turning  of  a  shaft  in  the  centre  • 
the  friction  which  the  pins  thus  undergo  renders  them  per- 
fectly bright.  The  uses  of  tin  for  domestic  purposes  are 
very  various,  particularly  when  laid  over  other  metals,  as 
in  stirrups,  buckles,  &c.     The  oxide  of  tin  is  used  in  dyeing. 

Tin  foil  is  used  for  coating  Leyden  jars,  for  enclosing 
small  packages  of  tobacco  and  spices,  and  for  covering  the 
tops  of  champagne  bottles,  &c.,  to  exclude  the  air.  Large 
sheets  are  used  for  silvering  looking  glasses. 

Tin  forms  alloys  with  several  other  metals.  These  com- 
pounds have  been  mentioned  before ;  as  bell  metal,  pewter, 
bronze.  Tin  leaves,  amalgamated  wdth  mercury,  are  used 
for  silvering  and  plating  other  metals. 

Geographical  Situation  of  Tin. 

England,  Germany,  Chili,  and  Mexico,  produce  the 
largest  quantities  of  this  metal.  The  tin  mines  of  Cornwall 
were  well  known  to  the  ancients ;  and  the  Phoenicians  are 
said  to  have  traded  with  the  Britons  for  it  long  before  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour.  Native  tin  is  never  found,  and  its 
ore  is  of  less  common  occurrence  than  that  of  iron.  It 
occurs  as  an  oxide,  or  mixed  with  sulphur  and  copper; 
chiefly  in  veins  running  through  granite  and  other  rocks. 
When  it  is  taken  from  the  mine,  it  is  broken  into  small 
pieces,  and  streams  of  water  are  passed  over  it,  to  free  it 
from  the  earthy  particles  with  which  it  is  intermixed  ;  it  is 
then  roasted  and  smelted,  when  the  metal  is  poured  out 
into  quadrangular  moulds  of  stone,  and  receives  the 
name  of  block  tin. 


3^2  '  FOURTH   STEP. — METALS. 

LESSON  xxn. 

COMPARISON     OP     METALS. 

Gold,  a  perfect  metal,  is  the  most  precious. 

most  compact. 

heaviest.  ' 

Its  weight  is  between  nineteen  and  twenty  times  that 
of  water. 

Silver,  a  perfect  metal,  is  next  in  value  to  gold,  and 
more  useful ;  its  weight  between  ten  and  eleven  times  that 
of  water. 

Quicksilver  is  fluid. 

easily  volatilized, 
immalleable. 
Its  weight  is  between  thirteen  and  fourteen  times  that 
of  water. 

Copper  is  the  most  sonorous. 

most  elastic,  except  iron. 
Its  weight   is  between   eight  and  nine  times  that  of 
water. 

Iron  is  the  most  elastic. 

most  tenacious. 

most  useful. 

most  ductile. 
Its  weight  is  between  seven  and  eight  times  that  of 
water. 

Lead  is  the  softest. 

most  easily  fused. 


ON   METALS   IN   GENERAL.  163 

Its  weight  is  between  eleven  and  twelve  times  that 
of  water. 

Tin,  next  to  lead,  is  the  softest  of  the  metals  ;  it  dilates 
most  by  heat ;  it  is  the  Hghtest,  its  weight  being  only  seven 
times  that  of  water. 

LESSON    XXIII. 

ON     METALS     IN     GENERAL. 

Metals  are  simple  elementary  bodies,  distinguished  by 
being  heavier  than  all  other  substances ;  by  possessing  a 
j)eculiar  lustre,  which  is  called  the  metallic  lustre ;  by  re- 
flecting light  and  heat ;  by  their  being  opaque,  fusible,  mal- 
leable, tenacious,  ductile,  and  generally  elastic.  Upon  this 
last  quality  seems  to  depend  their  fitness  for  exciting 
sound,  or  sonorousness.  Metals  are  capable  of  uniting 
with  each  other  in  a  state  of  fusion ;  this  union  is  called  an 
alloy.  It  is  remarkable  that  by  these  combinations  metals 
undergo  a  considerable  change  in  their  properties,  and  ac- 
quire new  ones  not  belonging  to  either  of  them  when  not 
united.  Thus  the  weight  of  the  alloy,  or  the  two  metals 
in  combination,  is  sometimes  very  different  from  the  weight 
of  both  the  metals  taken  separately ;  an  alloy  of  silver  with 
copper  or  tin,  or  one  of  silver  or  gold  with  lead,  is  heavier 
than  the  same  quantities  of  those  metals  uncombined. 
Their  ductility  and  malleability  are  changed  and  generally 
impaired,  the  alloy  becoming  brittle.  This  is  very  remark- 
ably the  case  with  gold  and  lead  when  united,  the  latter 
of  which,  even  in  the  trivial  proportion  of  half  a  grain  to. 
an  ounce  of  gold,  renders  the  mass  quite  destitute  of 
■.enacity. 


164  FOURTH    STEP. METALS, 

The  hardness  of  metals  is  varied  by  eotiibination.  Gold 
being  united  with  a  small  quantity  of  copper,  and  silver, 
with  a  minute  proportion  of  the  same  metal,  acquire  such 
an  increase  of  hardness,  that  these  additions  are  always 
made  to  gold  and  silver  which  are  exposed  to  wear.  By  a 
sinaU  addition  of  gold,  iron  is  said  to  gain  so  much  hard- 
ness as  to  be  even  superior  to  steel  for  the  fabrication  of 
cutting  instruments. 

Change  of  color  is  a  common  effect  of  the  union  of 
metals  wdth  each  other.  Arsenic,  for  example,  which  re- 
sembles steel,  and  copper,  which  has  a  red  color,  afford  by 
their  union  a  compound  which  has  nearly  the  whiteness  of 
silver. 

In  order  to  ascertain  how  far  the  children  have  retained 
the  knowledge  acquired  in  these  lessons,  the  following  ques- 
tions may  be  given  to  them  to  answer  in  writing : 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  METALS. 

GOLD. 

1.  What  are  the  chief  qualities  of  gold? 

2.  What  is  its  weight  ? 

3.  Give  a  proof  of  its  ductiUty. 

4.  tenacity. 

5.  malleability. 

6  Upon  what  other  quality  does  its  malleability  de- 
pend ? 

V.  What  qualities  are  directly  opposed  to  malleability  ? 

8.  What  is  an  alloy  ? 

9.  Why  is  gold  alloyed  for  the  purpose  of  coinage? 


SILVER.  105 

10.  What  metal  is  used  as  its  alloy  ?  and  in  wliat  pro- 
portion ? 

11.  How  are  buttons  gilded? 

12.  Describe  the  manner  of  forming  leaf  gold. 

13.  In  what  state  is  gold  found  ? 

14.  What  is  an  ore  ? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  a  native  metal? 

16.  In  what  countries  is  gold  found? 

17.  What  people  employ  themselves  in  separating  it 
from  the  sands  of  the  European  rivers  ? 

SILVER. 

1.  What  are  the  chief  proportions  of  silver? 

2.  What  is  its  weight  ? 

3.  What  degree  of  tenacity  does  it  possess? 

4.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  silver  ? 

5.  Upon  what  qualities  do  the  uses  of  silver  depend  ? 

6.  Describe  the  operation  of  plating. 

1.  What  is  lunar  caustic  ?  and  what  are  its  uses  ? 

8.  Give  the  geographical  location  of  silver. 

9.  Why  are  gold  and  silver  called  perfect  metals  ? 

QUICKSILVER. 

1.  What  are  the  uses  and  properties  of  quicksilver  ? 

2.  What  is  its  weight  ? 

3.  In  what  respect  is  it  remarkable  as  a  liquid  ? 

4.  What  effect  does  heat  produce  upon  it  ? 

5.  Under  what  circumstances  does  a  change  in  its  quaL 
itibjs  take  place  ?  and  what  is  the  change  ? 

6.  What  is  an  amalgam  ? 


166  FOUBTH    STEP. — METALS. 

1.  Mention  the  uses  of  quicksilver. 

8.  What  are  the  properties  that  fit  it  for  a  barometer  ? 

9.  What  for  a  thermometer  ? 

10.  How  is  a  barometer  made  ?  and  what  is  its  use  ? 

11.  How  is  a  thermometer  made  ?  and  what  is  its  use  ? 

12.  What  color  is  obtained  from  quicksilver  ? 

13.  Where  is  quicksilver  found  ? 

14.  What  circumstance  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  mines 
of  Idria  ? 

LEAD. 

1.  What  are  the  remarkable  qualities  of  lead? 

2.  What  is  its  weight? 

3.  What  are  the  different  effects  which  heat  produces 
on  lead  ? 

4.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  lead  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  used  for  reservoirs  of  water  ? 

6.  How  are  shot  made  ? 

7.  What  is  the  use  of  the  oxides  of  lead  ? 

8.  What  are  its  alloys  ? 

9.  In  what  state  is  lead  found  ? 

10.  What  is  lead  called  when  .found  united  with  sulphur? 

11.  Where  is  lead  most  abundant? 

12.  Describe  the  process  of  roasting  and  smelting. 

COPPEK. 

1.  What  are  the  chief  qualities  of  capper  ? 

2.  What  is  its  weight  and  what  its  degree  of  tenacity  ? 

3.  How  is  it  proved  to  be  capable  of  extreme  divisi- 
bility ? 

4.  What  are  the  uses  of  copper  ? 


IKON.  167 

5.  What  is  verdigris  ?  and  how  is  it  made  ? 

6.  What  is  the  danger  incurred  by  employing  copper 
in  kitchen  utensils  ? 

V.  What  are  the  alloys  of  copper  ? 

8.  In  what  respect  is  bra.^s  preferable  to  copper  ? 

9.  Where  is  copper  found  ?  and  in  what  state  ? 

10,  Describe  the   copper   mines   in  Anglesea,  and    the 
manner  of  extracting  the  metal  from  the  ore. 

IRON. 

1.  What  are  the  chief  qualities  of  iron  ? 

2.  What  quality  does  it  possess  in  a  higher   degree 
than  any  other  metal  ? 

3.  What  is  its  weight  and  tenacity  ? 

4.  What  are  the  different  states  in  which  iron  is  used  ? 

5.  How  is  cast  iron  prepared  ? 

6.  What  are  its  qualities  and  uses  ? 

7.  How  is  wrought  iron  prepared  ? 

8.  What  are  its  qualities  and  uses  ? 

9.  How  is  steel  prepared  ? 

10.  What  are  its  qualities  and  uses? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  the  temper  of  steel  ? 

12.  What  is    plumbago?    and   what   quality  makes   it 
useful ? 

13.  What  is  the   geographical   situation   of  iron?   and 
with  what  is  it  found  combined  ? 

TIN. 

1.  What  are  the  qualities  of  tin  ? 
Z.  What  are  the  uses  of  tin  ? 


1G8  FOUKTII    STEP. NATURAL    HISTORY. 

3.  How  is  it  prepared  for  use  ? 
i.  How  are  pins  tinned  ? 
5.  What  is  block  tin  ? 
C.  Where  is  tin  found  ? 

LESSON    XXIV. 

A    BEE. 

JFor  Children  from  ten  to  twelve  years  old. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    A   BEE. 

I.  Mcaminatio7i  of  the  Bee. — ^The  children  should  be 
directed  to  examine  a  bee  very  minutely,  and  the  following 
description,  as  far  as  it  can,  should  be  drawn  from  them ; 
and  what  they  cannot  observe,  they  should  be  told. 

The  bee  possesses  a  horny  covering,  which  is  harder 
than  the  internal  parts,  thus  serving  as  an  external  skele- 
ton. The  body  is  divided  into  three  distinct  parts — head, 
thorax,  and  body.  The  jaws  are  four  in  number — two  up- 
per ones,  and  two  under  ones ;  the  under  ones  are  length- 
ened, and  form,  as  it  were,  a  sheath  to  the  tongue.  The 
tongue  is  very  long  and  slender,  and  admirably  adapted 
for  clearing  the  honey  out  of  the  deep  nectaries  of  flowers, 
and  also  for  curling  up  inside  the  mouth.  Their  attention 
should  then  be  directed  to  the  fact,  that  there  is  a  mem- 
branous bag  folded  under  the  tongue.  They  should  be 
told  that  this  bag  is  capable  of  being  greatly  distended, 
and  is  used  for  receiving  the  honey  before  it  is  swallowed 
and  consigned  to  the  honey  bag.  The  bee  has  four  wings — 
two  upper  ones  and  two  under — the  latter  are  much  more 
delicate  than  the  former.     It  has  six  legs ;  on  the  broad 


A   BEE.  .  169 

surfaces  of  the  hind  legs  are  two  small  cavities,  which  have 
a  covering  or  lid  of  hairs.  The  children  should  be  told 
that  these  are  used  for  containing  the  bee  bread,  with 
which  it  feeds  the  young,  and  which  it  obtains  and  pre- 
pares at  the  same  time  it  is  gathering  honey,  and  that  when 
the  honey  also  is  safely  deposited  in  its  appropriate  place, 
the  bee,  quite  loaded,  flies  home.  The  children's  attention 
should  then  be  directed  to  the  eye  ;  but  before  speaking 
of  it  they  should  be  shown  a  piece  of  glass,  of  the  shape  of 
a  double  convex  lens,  be  told  its  name,  and  that  in  the  front 
part  of  our  eye  there  is  a  very  small  capsule,  or  bag,  filled 
with  a  transparent  fluid,  which  is  of  the  same  shape — that 
in  passing  through  this  the  rays  of  light  meet  in  a  point, 
or  focus,  which  causes  the  reflections  to  be  clear  and  dis- 
tinct. When  the  children  thoroughly  understand  this, 
they  should  be  told  that  the  eye  of  the  bee  is  always  im- 
movably fixed,  which  they  might  consider  a  great  defect, 
but  that  full  compensation  is  made  in  the  numerous  lenses 
with  which  it  is  filled,  each,  they  will  see,  acting  as  a  single 
eye,  consequently  the  bee  would  not  require  to  move  its 
eye.  The  children  should  then  be  told  that  the  bee  ^vas 
not  always  in  the  same  form  in  which  they  see  it,  but  that 
it  had  undergone  three  changes  ;  that  on  its  first  appear- 
ance from  the  egg  it  was  something  like  an  earth  worm, 
and  was  called  the  larva ;  in  the  second  change  it  is  called 
a  chrysalis,  when  it  is  quite  torpid ;  and  in  the  third  it  is 
^he  perfect  insect  or  bee. 

From  knowledge  previously  acquired,  the  children  will 
be  able  by  this  examination  of  the  bee  to  state  that  it  is  a 
true  insect,  and  also  to  give  the  three  proofs :  1st.  It  con- 
8 


170  FOURTH    STEP. NATURAL    HISTORY. 

sists  of  head,  thorax,  and  body,  while  some  insects  (im- 
properly so  called),  such  as  the  spider  and  scorpion,  consist 
only  of  head  and  body,  the  thorax  being  united  with  the 
head.  2d.  It  has  six  legs — whereas  the  so-called  insects 
have  never  less  than  eight — such  are  the  spider  and  scor- 
pion. 3d.  The  spider  and  scorpion,  and  all  the  so-called 
insects,  never  undergo  the  changes  for  which  the  bee  and 
all  true  insects  are  remarkable. 

After  having  thus  dwelt  upon  the  particular  group  to 
which  the  bee  belongs,  the  children  should  be  desired  to 
name  the  great  class  in  which  it  is  included,  and  also  to 
give  the  reasons  why  so  placed ;  viz.,  the  bee  belongs  to 
the  class  "  Articulata,"  because,  1st.  It  possesses  what  may 
be  considered  an  external  skeleton  in  its  horny  covering ; 
2d.  Its  body  is  divided  into  several  segments,  or  parts, 
which  are  joined  or  articulated  together. 

II.  Habits  of  the  Bee. — They  are  social  insects,  each 
individual  working  for  the  good  of  all ;  they  are  remark- 
able for  their  great  industry  and  carefulness,  and  for  the 
instinct  they  possess,  as  seen  in  the  construction  of  their 
habitations — a  subject  which  should  be  taken  up  in  a 
separate  lesson. 

LESSON    XXV. 

HONEY   COMB. 

For  Children  from  eight  to  twelve  years  old, 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   COMBS,    ETC. 

I.  Examination  of  the  Comh. — Several  pieces  of  honey 
comb  should  be  presented  to  the  children.     On  examining 


HONEY    COMB.  171 

the  combs  the  children  will  discover  that-  they  are  chiefly 
made  of  wax,  but  not  exclusively,  being  smeared  over  with 
a  gummy  substance.  They  should  be  told  that  this  is  called 
"  propolis,"  and  is  obtained  from  the  bark  and  buds  of  some 
trees,  and  serves  to  strengthen  the  combs. 

II.  Examination  of  Cells. —  Classes  of  Bees. — The  cells 
should  then  be  examined  as  to  their  size;  the  children 
will  soon  see  that  there  are  three  varieties  in  their  size. 
They  should  then  be  told  that  there  are  three  distinctions 
among  the  bees : — 1st.  There  is  the  queen  bee,  who  is  the 
most  important  personage,  and  the  mother  of  all;  who, 
with  the  royal  larvae,  occupies  the  largest  cells,  termed 
"  royal  chambers."  2d.  The  male  bees,  who  are  a  little 
smaller  in  size ;  the  next  sized  cells  contain  larvae  that  will 
produce  these.  3d.  There  are  the  workers,  or  the  female 
bees,  which  are  the  smallest  kind  ;  eggs  that  will  produce 
these  are  deposited  in  the  smallest  cells. 

III.  Uses  of  Cells. — ^The  children  should  then  be  led 
by  questioning  to  tell  the  three  uses  of  cells.  By  refer- 
ring to  what  had  just  been  dwelt  upon,  they  see  that  the 
first  use  was,  to  contain  eggs.  By  asking  what  was  done 
with  all  the  honey  that  was  gathered,  they  will  give  the 
use,  to  serve  as  storehouses  for  honey.  By  questioning 
them  as  to  what  else  the  bee  gathers  from  flowers,  besides 
honey,  and  what  was  done  with  it,  they  will  see  that  the 
cells  also  serve  as  receptacles  for  bee  bread. 

IV.  Description  of  the  Construction  of  Combs  and 
Cells. — ^After  all  this  is  quite  clear  to  the  children,  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  combs  and  cells  are  constructed  should  be 
described  to  them,  stopping  at  intervals  in  order  to  ques- 


172  FOUETH   STEP. — NATUEAL   HISTOET. 

tion  them,  that  all  may  follow ;  thus,  The  wax  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  form  of  eight  scales  upon  the  bee  pre- 
vious to  the  making  of  a  comb.  A  bee  ascends  to  the  top 
of  the  hive,  and  attaches  itself  by  the  hind  legs  to  the  roof; 
another  follows,  and  by  its  hind  legs  fastens  itself  to  the 
first  bee ;  a  third  follows  the  second,  and  so  on,  till  a  long 
string  is  formed,  the  last  bee  of  which  also  fastens  itself 
to  the  roof,  so  that  a  kind  of  festoon  is  produced  ;  thiS 
festoon  is  filled  up  by  many  more  bees :  several  such  fes- 
toons are  made  in  each  hive.  In  this  state  the  bees  remain 
quite  still,  until  the  scales  appear.  A  bee  then  se.parate3 
itself  from  the  rest,  and  by  its  hind  legs  removes  one  of 
the  scales,  which  is  carried  to  the  mouth  by  the  fore  legs, 
where  it  is  masticated  and  mixed  with  a  frothy  liquid,  by 
which  it  becomes  whiter  and  firmer  ;  it  is  then  attached  to 
the  roof  of  the  hive :  the  remaining  scales  are  treated  in 
precisely  the  same  manner;  and  then  the  bee  retires, 
making  way  for  another  bee.  Thus  they  continue  to  work 
until  the  whole  block  is  formed.  Before  proceeding  to 
the  construction  of  the  cells,  the  children  should  be  well 
questioned  on  the  preceding;  as;. How  does  the  wax  ap- 
pear ? — In  what  way  do  the  bees  arrange  themselves  be- 
fore commencing:  the  combs? — How  is  the  festoon  com- 
menced  ? — What  is  the  next  movement  of  the  bees  ? — 
What  process  does  the  wax  undergo  before  being  attached 
to  the  hive,  and  what  are  the  benefits  ?  &c.,  &c. 

The  manner  of  constructing  the  cells  should  then  be 
described,  as  follows : — ^As  soon  as  sufficient  of  the  comb 
has  been  made  to  admit  of  the  work  of  excavation,  a  bee 
commences  making  a  cell ;  and  as  the  comb  increases  in 


COVEKING    OP  BIKDS.  173 

size,  the  number  of  cells  multiplies  rapidly,  more  bees  being 
able  to  join  in  the  work. 

V.  Lessons  of  Instruction. — ^The  children  should  next 
be  assisted  to  draw  lessons  of  instruction  from  what  has 
been  noticed  respecting  the  bee. 

First,  They  afford  us  a  striking  example  of  industry 
and  carefulness — They  do  not  lose  one  hour  of  the  sum- 
mer's sunshine,  but  are  always  busy  gathering  honey,  and 
storing  it  up  for  the  winter's  use,  when  they  cannot  leave 
their  hives — From  this  we  should  learn  never  to  idle  away 
our  time  in  youth,  but  embrace  every  opportunity  of  lay- 
ing by  stores  of  instruction,  for  our  comfort  in  old  age, 
when  we  are  not  capable  of  so  doing. 

Secondly,  The  examination  of  this  wonderful  little  in- 
sect should  also  enlarge  our  ideas  respecting  the  infinite 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  God,  who  giveth  one  of  his 
smallest  creatures  such  powers  as  are  not  only  necessary 
to  its  own  well-being,  but  can  also  contribute  to  the  com- 
fort of  man ;  showing  that  the  very  smallest,  as  well  as  the 
largest  of  God's  works,  demands  our  highest  admiration. 


lesso:n^  xxyi. 

BKETCH    OF  A   LESSON   ON  THE    COVERING    OF   BIKDS,  AND   ITS 
ADAPTATION   TO   THEIR  WANTS. 

For  Children  under  twelve  years  of  age. 

In  order  that  the  children  should  determine  what  is 
necessary  in  the  covering  of  birds,  refer  to  their  habits, 
motion,  and  the  element  in  which  they  move ;  and  from  a 


174  FOURTH    STEP. ^LESSON   XXVI. 

consideration  of  these,  lead  them  to  deduce  the  necessity 
for  great  warmth ;  by  comparison  of  the  blood  of  birds 
with  that  of  other  animals,  speak  of  the  rapid  changes  of 
temperature  to  which  they  are  exposed  in  passing  from  one 
country  to  another — in  ascending  and  descending  in  the 
atmosphere.  (Instance  Vultures.)  The  vulture  descends 
from  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  to  tropical  plains  in  a  few 
moments.  Also,  call  attention  to  their  long  and  sustained 
flight — the  energy  they  possess  in  consequence  of  their 
quick  circulation,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  warmth  of  their 
bodies — and  how  their  covering  prevents  it  from  escaping. 

Great  strength  combined  with  lightness. 

The  children  led  to  see  why  the  feathers  should  be 
strong,  by  reference  to  the  organs  of  flight.  Why  light 
and  also  smooth,  by  reference  to  the  element  through 
which  the  bird  moves. 

II.  Examination  of  the  structure  of  a  feather. — Chil- 
dren name  and  describe  the  parts  of  a  feather  : — the  quill 
or  barrel — the  shaft — vane,  or  beard — the  qualities  of  the 
quill  mentioned : 

Lightness. — Result  of  form— ^a  hollow  cylinder  much 
stronger  than  if  the  same  quantity  were  made  into  a  solid 
cylinder.  Should  be  illustrated  to  the  children  by  compar- 
ing the  weight  borne  by  a  hollow  cylinder  made  of  a  piece 
of  paper,  with  the  weight  borne  by  the  same  piece  of  paper 
made  into  a  solid  cylinder. 

Strength. — Composed  of  two  sets  of  fibres,  one  acting 
longitudinally,  the  other  circularly — eflect  of  this — ^cut  a 
quill  as  when  a  pen  is  made,  and  show  the  children  that  the 
latter  set  are  scraped  off,  the  former  separated  by  the  slit. 


COVEEING   OF   BIEDS.  175 

The  shaft  examined  and  described.  Lead  the  children 
to  see  how  the  form  adapts  it  to  the  shape  of  the  body — ■ 
speak  of  the  manner  of  flight,  and  show  the  necessity  of 
the  groove  and  curve  beneath,  in  striking  the  air ;  and  of 
the  great  strength  above,  necessary  to  resist  the  stroke. 

Yane^  or  heard. — Examined — of  what  composed — shape 
of  the  barbs,  and  their  position  with  respect  to  the  shaft — 
their  arrangement  with  respect  to  each  other — why  the  flat 
sides  are  tm-ned  toward  each  other,  and  edges  upward  and 
downward — a  large  unrufiled  quill  presented,  and  the  chil- 
dren shown  that  the  barbs  are  firmly  held  together — when 
pulled  asunder,  they  again  unite  on  being  smoothed — how 
is  this  ?  Mention  with  what  each  barb  is  provided — posi- 
tion, office,  and  use  of  barblets — call  attention  of  children 
to  the  beauty  of  this  complicated  arrangement,  by  suppos- 
ing the  beard  formed  of  a  single  piece,  or  the  barbs  glued 
together — the  consequence  in  either  case? — an  injury  once 
sustained  could  never  be  repaired  by  the  bird — how  the 
bird  restores  any  feathers  unfitted  for  flight  through  the 
violence  of  a  storm,  by  contact  with  prey,  or  other 
accident. 

(What  has  been  said  here  refers  chiefly  to  the  feathers 
of  the  wing  and  tail.) 

Children  led  to  see  how  admirably  the  structure  and 
arrangement  of  the  body  feathers  are  adapted  to  secure  the 
warmth  required  for  the  bird. 

The  feathers  of  the  body  compared  with  those  of  the 
wings,  and  the  class  led  to  observe  how  each  part  of  the 
former  is  modified  to  suit  a  diflerent  purpose.  Refer  to 
the  swan,  to  show  the  provisions  made  when  great  warmth 


176  FOURTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  XXVn. 

is  required.  Direct  attention  to  what  are  called  warm  sub- 
stances— they  are  non-conductors,  and  prevent  the  escape 
of  heat — ^how  feathers  effectually  accomphsh  this  for  the 
bird. 

Arrangement  of  feathers  in  wings  and  tail — wind  can 
'scarcely  ruffle  them. 

Refer  to  the  goodness  and  wisdom  of  God  in  the  beau- 
tiful adaptation  of  structure  to  wants,  and  caU  for  a  suita- 
ble text. 

LESSON  xxvn. 

SKETCH  OF  A  LESSON   ON  THE  ADAPTATION   OF  FEATHERS  TO 
THE   HABITS   AND   WANTS   OF   BIRDS. 

For  Children  under  twelve  years  of  Age, 

I.  The  Owl — Habits  and  food. — Call  the  children'? 
attention  to  the  habits  and  food  of  the  owl. 

1.  Habits. — Nocturnal,  passing  the  day  in  obscurity, 
but  on  approach  of  evening  (ioming  forth  in  search  of  prey. 

2.  Food. — Mice,  and  other  small  animals,  which  are 
naturally  very  timid,  and  likely  to  be  disturbed  by  the 
least  noise,  therefore  only  to  be  approached  with  great 
caution. 

3.  Adaptation  of  plumage. — Refer  to  the  noise  usually 
made  by  birds  in  flying — how  prevented  in  case  of  the 
owl  ?  Plumage  of  owl  examined,  and  the  children  led  to 
see  that  the  feathers  are  soft,  loose,  downy,  yielding  to 
every  breath  of  air. 

Wings  provided  with  quill  feathers,  deficient  in  strength 
and  elasticity.     Children  led  to  deduce  the  necessity  for 


HABITS   AND  WANTS    OF   BIKDS.  177 

this,  by  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  animals  on  which 
they  prey. 

Exte^it  of  wings  compared  with  the  body.  Children 
led  to  see  the  provision  made  to  prevent  tardiness  of 
flight. 

The  edge  of  the  outer  feather  of  the  owl  compared 
with  that  of  a  pigeon,  or  any  other  bird,  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  how  admirably  they  are  modified  to  secure 
noiseless  flight. 

II.  The  Kingfisher. — Direct  attention  to  its  locality 
and  food. 

1.  Locality. — Inhabits  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers. 

2.  Food. — Preys  on  small  fish.  The  manner  of  obtain- 
ing food  described,  and  the  children  led  to  see  the  kind  of 
plumage  necessary  to  resist  the  action  of  water  during  its 
sudden  plunges. 

3.  The  kingfisher's  plumage  examined — adaptation  of 
bright  hues  and  metallic  lustre  shown. 

4.  Habits  of  owl  compared  with  those  of  kingfisher,  to 
show  the  necessity  of  a  diffbrent  kind  of  covering.  What 
would  be  the  consequence  had  the  kingfisher  feathers  like 
the  owl? 

III.  The  Duck. — Children  called  upon  to  say  all  they 
know  of  the  habits  and  food,  where  seen,  &c. 

Refer  to  the  habits  and  food  of  duck — to  the  chilling 
and  softening  eflfects  of  water — and  then  lead  the  children 
to  see  the  necessity  for  such  covering  as  will  resist  these 
effects.  Compare  the  different  effects  of  rain  on  the 
feathers  of  a  duck,  and  on  those  of  a  hen. 

The  reason  of  this  difference  may  be  illustrated  by  ref- 
8* 


178  FOUKTU    STEP. ^LESSON   XXVIII. 

erence  to  the  various  ways  in  which  oil  is  used  where 
resistance  to  the  influence  of  water  is  desired.  Examine 
the  plumage  of  a  duck  :  use  of  thick,  downy  under-coat — 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  body ;  smooth,  pol- 
ished outer  feathers — to  keep  out  wet. 

Habits  of  duck  and  kingfisher  contrasted,  to  show  the 
necessity  of  different  modification  of  feathers. 

IV.  The  OsTEiCH. — Refer  to  the  country  where  it  is 
found — its  food  and  habits — show  that  flight  is  not  neces- 
sary— refer  to  the  heat  of  the  country  inhabited  by  the  os- 
trich— the  kind  of  protection  needed;  and  lead  the  children 
to  see  how  the  plumage  is  fitted  to  aflford  this. 

LESSON  XXYin. 

SKETCH   OF   A  LESSON   ON  THE  BEAKS   OF   BIBDS. 

For  Children  from  eight  to  ten  years  of  age, 
I.  Commence  by  questioning  the  children  as  to  the 
organ  by  which  birds  obtain  their  food  ;  how  it  difiers  from 
our  mouth,  and  how  it  is  a  substitute  for  teeth  ;  and  draw 
from  them  all  they  may  have  obseWed  as  to  the  habits  of 
birds,  supplying  information  where  necessary,  and  leading 
them  to  see-  that  some  birds,  as  the  swallow,  spend  their 
time  chiefly  on  the  wing,  darting  with  short  and  rapid 
flights  in  every  direction  ;  and  some,  as  the  duck,  spend 
the  greater  part  of  their  time  in  swimming ;  others,  as  the 
heron,  are  seen  standing  generally  in  the  soft  mud  in  the 
neighborhood  of  pools  and  lakes ;  some,  as  the  hen,  may 
be  seen  constantly  scratching  up  the  ground ;  and  others 
again,  as  the  owl,  stealthily  flitting  about  at  night. 


ON   THE   BEAKS    OF    BIKDS.  179 

Question  as  to  how  all  these  are  employed,  and  lead 
them  to  see  that  the  difference  of  habits  arises  from  the 
different  kinds  of  food  that  they  require,  and  the  different 
elements  in  which  they  seek  for  it. 

II.  Present  the  beaks  of  the  several  birds  above  men- 
tioned—Children examine  them,  and  trace  their  adaptation 
to  the  wants  of  the  bird. 

1st.  That  of  the  Sicallow. — Thin — soft — very  wide  at 
the  base,  and  coming  quickly  to  a  point.  Why  soft  ? — In- 
ferred from  the  nature  of  its  food,  insects  captured  while 
on  the  wing.  The  necessity  for  the  great  width  of  the  beak 
in  propoi'tion  to  the  size  of  the  bird,  may  also  be  inferred 
from  the  difficulty  of  securing  these  insects  in  the  air. 

2d.  The  Duck's. — Broad,  flat,  and  spoon-shaped,  having 
a  fringe  at  the  edge  of  each  mandible.  Use  of  the  fringe — 
Serves  as  a  strainer.  The  reason  of  this  shaped  beak  will 
be.  seen  by  reference  to  its  food — small  fish  and  insects. 
To  the  manner  of  obtaining  them — dipping  its  head  under 
water  and  straining  the  mud  through  the  serrated  edges 
of  its  beak,  and  retaining  what  is  necessary. 

3d.  The  Snipe's. — Long  and  slender,  serrated  like  the 
duck's.  By  reference  to  the  food  and  habits,  lead  the 
children  to  see  how  this  long  and  slender  beak  is  fitted  for 
entering  the  soft  mud,  and  how  admirably  the  serrated 
edge  is  suited  for  retaining  the  insects  contained  in  the 
mud. 

4th.  The  Hell's. — Hard,  strong,  straight  and  blunt.  By 
considering  the  habits  of  the  hen,  lead  tlio  children  to  see 
the  necessity  for  hardness  and  strength,  from  the  frequency 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact  with  clay,  stones,  and  other 


180  FOURTH   STEP. — LESSON   XXIX. 

hard  substances,  also  the  hardness  of  the  food ; — the  bird 
could  not  well  pick  up  any  grains  without  a  hard  instru- 
ment. Refer  to  the  force  with  which  it  pecks,  and  show 
the  necessity  for  bluntness — If  sharp,  would  soon  be  worn 
away,  and  enter  the  ground  by  the  force  of  the  blow. 

5th.  The  OioVs. — Sharp,  strong,  and  curved.  The  ne- 
cessity for  these  qualities  again  inferred  fi-om  the  nature 
of  its  food, — ^birds  and  other  small  animals  ;  it  requires  the 
sharpness  and  strength  it  possesses  to  destroy  its  prey  and 
tear  it  asunder. 

Before  concluding  the  lesson,  require  the  children  to 
state  how  the  beak  of  each  bird  mentioned  is  suited  to  its 
food,  and  then  draw  from  them  the  conclusion,  that  the 
beaks  of  all  birds  are  suited  to  their  habits  and  wants, 
showing  the  goodness  of  God  in  thus  providing  them  with 
what  is  best  for  them. 

LESSON    XXIX. 

SKETCHES    OP    A    LESSON    ON    THE    MOLE. — TO    BE    GIVEN    TO 
CHILDREN   OP  TEN   YEAKS    OP   AGE. 

No.  I. — Intended  simply  for  the  Teacher'* s  own  use. 

I.  Animal  described. — The  body  in  form  cylindrical — 
Compact,  and  strong  in  the  fore  part.  The  snout  elon- 
gated, terminating  in  bone  rather  than  gristle.  The  eyes 
small,  and  sunk  in  the  fur.  No  external  ears^  but  a  simple 
opening  concealed  under  the  covering.  The  skin  tough, 
and  covered  by  an  extremely  close,  fine,  short  fur — ^having 
no  determined  direction,  but,  like  the  nap  of  velvet,  pre- 
senting a  smooth  surface,  incapable  of  being  ruffled.    The 


ON   THE    MOLE.  181 

limbs  short— The  front  pair  thick,  strong,  and  muscular, 
ending  in  broad  hands^  spade-like  in  shape,  obliquely  in* 
chned  so  as  to  make  the  inner  edges  the  lowest  part — ^The 
extremities  of  these  organs,  five  fingers,  scarcely  distinct, 
but  furnished  with  hard,  flat  nails — The  hind  limbs  small, 
and  the  feet  comparatively  feeble. 

II.  Habits  described. — The  mole  subsists  chiefly  on 
worms,  and  the  larvai  of  insects  found  in  the  greatest 
abundance  under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  where  the  mole 
has  its  habitation  beneath  those  miniature  hills  so  frequently 
found  in  rich  meadows,  and  cultivated  fields.  Its  nest  is 
of  a  conical  form,  carefully  lined  with  vegetable  fibre,  and 
makes  a  most  comfortable  nursery  for  its  young,  which  are 
reared  with  extreme  care  and  tenderness.  Leading  to  the 
nest  are  always  several  subterraneous  galleries,  furnishing 
roads  of  egress  and  ingress. 

III.  Adaptation  of  the  Organization  of  the  Animal 
to  its  Habits. — Structure,  and  habits  of  the  mole  carefully 
recapitulated. 

From  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  front  limbs,  infer 
that  they  are  essentially  necessary  in  administering  to  the 
wants  of  the  animal.  Means  the  little  creature  has  of  ex- 
cavating the  passages  in  which  its  food  is  to  be  found. 
Has  no  other,  and  needs  no  other  than  those  spade-like 
instruments  the  nails,  the  extremities  of  which  loosen  the 
soil,  and  render  it  capable  of  being  collected  in  the  hands ; 
from  whence  it  is  thrown  to  the  sides,  and  a  little  behind 
the  animal.  The  nails,  aided  by  the  pointed  long  snout, 
admirably  adapted  for  working  its  way  in  the  earth,  and 
detecting  worms,  grubs,  &c. — directed   to  these  by  the 


182  FOURTH    STEP. — LESSON    XXX 

acute  senses  of  smelling  and  hearing.  Little  power  of 
vision  required ;  little  given.  God  makes  nothing  which 
has  not  some  distinct  end  to  answer.  The  goodness  of  the 
Creator  manifest  in  withholding  an  external  ear  and  a  fully- 
developed  eye ; — if  given,  sources  not  of  pleasure  but  of 
pain,  on  account  of  their  liability  to  injury  from  the  mould 
in  which  the  animal  is  constantly  employed. 

Covering  exactly  suited  to  an  animal  destined  to  lead 
a  subterraneous  life.  Thick,  short,  and  incapable  of  being 
displaced,  it  does  not  impede  the  animal  in  its  progress — 
Does  not  retain  the  wet  and  mud.  Well  might  the*  Psalm- 
ist exclaim,  "O  Lord,  how  manifold  are  Thy  works,  in 
wisdom  hast  Thou  made  them  all. 

LESSON    XXX. 

No.  II. — The  Method  of  giving  the  Lesson  on  the  Mole 
is  here  Detailed  at  lengthy  to  show  not  07ily  what  is 
Taught^  but  how  it  is  Taught. 

I.  Structure  described.— A  specimen  of  the  mole  being 
presented  to  the  children,  get  them  carefully  to  observe 
and  describe  its  principal  organs.,  directing  their  attention 
by  means  of  questions,  comparisons,  &c. 

Ask  if  they  know  any  form  which  the  body  nearly  re- 
sembles?— "What  things  having  the  form  of  a  cylinder  are 
said  to  be  ? — What  then  may  be  said  of  the  body  of  the 
mole? — "The  body  of  the  mole  is  cylindrical" — ^This 
should  be  simultaneously  repeated  and  written  by  the 
teacher  on  the  black  board. 

Next,  let  the  children  compare  the /t/r  of  the  mole  with 


ON   THE    MOLE.  183 

that  of  some  animal  in  which  the  hairs  are  scattered  and 
stiff.  Call  upon  them  to  state  the  difference,  and  if  unao' 
quainted  with  the  term  that  expresses  the  quality  of  the 
mole's  covering,  tell  them  that,  "  when  things  are  made 
to  he  closely  together,  and  so  as  to  occupy  a  smaller  space 
than  they  otherwise  would,  they  are  said  to  be  compact, 
or  compactly  arranged  " — Let  this  be  repeated  more  than 
once  if  necessary. 

Inquire  whether  they  know  any  manufactured  article 
used  in  dress  to  which  the  covering  of  the  mole  bears  a 
resemblance.  The  obvious  qualities  of  the  fur,  such  as 
short,  thick,  fine,  will  be  quickly  seen ;  but  probably  not 
one  child  will  discover  that,  like  the  nap  of  velvet,  it  has 
no  fixed  direction,  and  is  incapable  of  being  ruffled,  until 
told  to  stroke  the  animal  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  and 
from  the  tail  to  the  head,  and  a  cat  in  the  same  way — ^Then 
to  state  what  they  observe.  The  children  should  describe 
the  fur,  and  the  teacher  add  to  the  account  on  the  board, 
"  and  covered  by  a  fine,  short,  compact  fur,  which  has  no 
particular  direction,  and  cannot  be  ruffled." 

Next  ask.  What  animal  has  a  head  something  like  the 
mole? — When  they  had  a  lesson  on  the  pig,  what  did 
they  say  of  its  snout  9 — How  it  terminated  ? — Let  them 
feel  the  extremity  of  that  organ  in  the  mole,  and  then  de- 
scribe the  head.  "  The  head  of  the  mole  is  small,  tapering 
into  an  elongated  snout,  which  ends  in  bone  rather  than 
gristle." — This  should  be  repeated  simultaneously,  and  writ- 
ten on  the  board. 

Other  parts  of  the  head  named  and  described  by  the 
children — The  eyes  very  small,  and  sunk  in  the  fur.    Should 


184  FOURTH   STEP. — LESSON   XXX. 

the  children  assert  that  the  mole  has  no  ears^  tell  them 
that  it  has  no  external  ears  that  can  be  seen,  but  that  it» 
possesses  the  sense  of  hearing  to  a  considerable  degree. 
Question — With  what  do  they  hear? — Touch  their  ears — 
Do  they  think  they  would  hear  were  that  flap  removed  ? — 
Not  so  well,  certainly,  but  they  would  be  far  from  deaf; 
for  they  have  an  internal  ear^  and  the  mole  has  this  also ; 
the  entrance  to  which  they  may  discover  if  they  look  care- 
fully. Add  to  the  notes  on  the  board,  "The  eyes  are  small, 
nearly  hidden  by  the  fur;  there  is  no  outer  ear,  but  a 
simple  opening,  concealed  under  the  covering." 

Inquire  if  there  is  anything  remarkable  about  the  limbs  ? 
They  are  very  short ;  the  front  pair  are  strong  and  ijius- 
cular,  terminating  in  broad  hands.  Do  the  hands  remind 
them  of  any  tool  used  by  gardeners,  ditchers,  &c.  ?  Yes, 
they  are  spade-like  ;  when  they  compare  the  fingers  of  the 
mole  with  their  own,  what  difference  do  they  observe  ? 
what  have  they  at  the  ends  of  their  fingers  ?  what  has 
the  mole  ?  Desire  them  to  describe  the  front  limbs,  and 
say  what  shall  be  written  on  the  board.  "  The  front  limbs 
of  the  mole  are  strong,  muscular,  and  terminate  in  large, 
broad,  spade-like  hands,  ending  in  five  fingers,  scarcely 
divided,  and  furnished  with  hard,  flat  nails."  By  causing 
the  children  to  compare  the  position  of  the  hands  of  the 
mole  with  that  of  their  own,  lead  them  to  observe  the 
oblique,  downward,  and  outward  direction  of  the  former. 
Desire  them  to  feel  that  portion  of  the  body  to  which  tho 
limbs  are  attached,  and  contrast  it  with  the  fore  parts  of 
a  rabbit,  that  they  may  perceive  not  only  that  the  arms  are 
Btrong,  but  that  that  part  of  the  frame  which  supports  thorn 


ON    THE   MOLE.  185 

is  SO  also.  Question  as  to  the  difference  observable  between 
the  front  and  hind  Hmbs.  The  latter  are  small  and  slender, 
lying  close  to  the  body,  the  feet  are  furnished  with  claws, 
yet  are  feeble  compared  to  the  spade-like  hands. 

II.  Habits  described. — Inform  the  children  that  the 
mole  cannot  endure  more  than  six  hours'  fast  without  great 
exhaustion.  That  it  subsists  on  worms  and  the  sfrubs  of 
insects,  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  under  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

If  the  pupils  are  not  acquainted  with  the  interior  of 
mole  hills,  represent  to  them  on  the  board  the  galleries 
and  miniature  hills  made  by  the  excavations  of  the  little 
miner.  Speak  of  the  lining  of  the  nests  of  birds.  Tell  them 
that  the  nest  of  the  mole  is  lined  with  vegetable  fibre,  and 
made  a  most  comfortable  nursery  for  its  young,  which  are 
reared  with  extreme  care  and  tenderness.  That  leading 
to  the  dormitory  of  the  mole  there  are  always  several  sub- 
terranean passages,  dug  out  by  the  creature  as  means  of 
going  in  and  coming  out.  That  he  is  an  expert  swimmer  ; 
appears  to  enjoy  the  water;  and  requires  to  drink  fre- 
quently ;  and  that  there  is  usually  a  colony  of  these  little 
miners  in  possession  of  one  common  passage  to  the  nearest 
stream  or  ditch. 

in.  Adaptation  of  the  organs  to  the  hdJAts  und  locality 
shown. — Let  the  children,  with  the  assistance  of  the  notes 
on  the  board,  and  the  occasional  uso  of  the  ellipsis,  recapit- 
ulate the  description  of  the  organization  and  habits  of  the 
mole.  Ask  them  to  what  the  first  part  of  the  lesson  re- 
lated, and  to  what  the  second.  Question  them  as  to  what 
connection  there  is  bc-Vw^en  the  organs,  and  the  habitjj  and 


186  FOURTH    STEP. LESSON   XXX. 

locality  of  animals.  Require  examples  of  animals  having 
their  organs  exactly  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life.  Ques- 
tion :  What  organ  fits  the  monkey  for  its  life  amid  trees  ? 
What  part  of  the  bat  is  adapted  for  flight  ?  What  ena- 
bles the  hedgehog  to  burrow  in  the  earth  ?  What  organ 
do  they  observe  varies  most  to  meet  the  wants  of  animals  ? 
Draw  from  them  the  general  rule,  that  "  God,  who  formed 
animals,  not  only  fixed  the  bounds  of  their  habitation,  and 
gave  them  their  peculiar  propensities,  but  also  caused  that 
the  one  should  be  fitted  to  the  other."  This  is  to  be  re- 
peated. Question :  Did  they  observe  anything  peculiar  in 
the  construction  of  the  limbs  of  the  mole  ?  What  then  do 
they  expect  to  find  ?  That  they  are  essentially  necessary 
in  administering  to  its  wants.  Where  is  its  food  found  ? 
What  means  has  it  of  getting  at  worms  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth  ?  Have  they  ever  seen  men  making  sewers  ? 
What  implements  had  they  ?  The  mole  has  similar  work 
to  do.  What  has  it  corresponding  to  a  spade  or  shovel  ? 
Desire  the  children  to  imitate  with  their  own  hands  the 
position  of  the  hands  of  the  mole,  and  say  if  they  were  to 
throw  anything  from  them,  holdiiTg  their  hands  in  this  po- 
sition, in  what  direction  with  respect  to  their  bodies  it 
would  go  ?  What  would  be  the  consequence  if  the  mole 
could  only  use  its  feet  in  throwing  soil  behind  it  ?  Are  the 
feet  of  animals  ever  used  in  any  other  operation  ?  Think 
of  the  monkey,  the  cat,  the  parrot.  But  the  mole  does 
not  convey  its  food  to  its  mouth  by  means  of  its  hands. 
What  other  organ  could  it  use  ?  What  senses  in  the  mole 
would  they  expect  to  find  very  acute  ?  Does  it  need  much 
light  in  its  underground  work  ?    What  sense  would  not  as- 


ON   THE   MOLE,  187 

sist  it  in  discovering  its  prey  ?  What  have  they  observed 
when  animals  have  not  required  a  sense  or  organ  ?  Re- 
mark :  They  see  that  God  makes  nothing  that  has  not 
some  distinct  end  to  answer,  some  work  to  perform. 
Question:  Do  they  see  any  reason  why  an  external  ear 
was  not  given  to  the  mole  ?  If  it  had  one,  what  must 
happen  ?  What  must  be  the  result  of  the  dirt  and  dust 
entering  into  the  ears  and  eyes  ?  Hence  if  bestowed  they 
w^ould  be  sources  not  of  pleasure  but  of  pain.  What  shall 
we  say  of  the  Creator  of  this  little  miner  ?  He  is  indeed 
hind  as  well  as  loise.  "  His  tender  mercies  are  over  all  His 
works."  Question :  If  they  were  to  thrust  a  hand  into 
some  newly  dug  earth,  how  would  it  feel  ?  What  kind  of 
covering  then  would  be  the  best  for  one  living  under 
ground  ?  How  is  the  fur  of  the  mole  adapted  to  keep  in 
the  heat  of  the  body  ?  What  other  adv^antage  arises  from 
its  fineness  and  thickness  ?  In  what  direction  does  a  cat 
like  to  be  stroked  ?  What  would  be  done  by  pressing  the 
hand  the  reverse  way  ?  When  told  that  sometimes  moles 
pass  each  other  in  their  very  narrow  galleries,  or  in  their 
passage  to  a  reservoir  of  water,  and  that  not  unfrequently 
a  single  mole  can  only  just  move  with  ease  along  a  newly- 
excavated  road,  the  children  will  readily  see  the  suitability 
of  a  covering  incapable  of  being  ruffled,  and  of  a  body 
compact  and  cylindrical.  What  do  they  observe  in  all  its 
organs  ?  What  said  David  respecting  God's  works  ?  Let 
us  also  say,  "  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works  ;  in  wis- 
dom hast  Thou  made  them  all." 

The  lesson  to  be  recapitulated,  and  condensed  into  a 
simple    summary  containing   the   principal   ideas.     To  be 


188  FOUJiTH    STEP. ^I.ESSON    XXXI. 

written  at  home  from  memory,  and  brought  the  following 
morning.* 

LESSON  XXXI. 

Two  Sketches  of  Lessons  on  Fur. 

SKETCH    I. 

I.  WJiat  it  is,  and  how  fitted  for  the  clothing  of  ani- 
mals.— Pictures,  or  stuffed  specimens,  such  as  can  be  pro- 
cured, brought  before  the  children,  that  they  may  be  led 
to  determine  what  fur  is,  and  observe  its  great  variety  and 
beauty,  owing  to  the  difference  in  the  color,  length,  and 
thickness  of  the  hairs.  Use  to  the  animal.  State  to  the 
children  the  changes  which  it  undergoes  at  different  sea- 
sons of  the  year ;  in  winter  becoming  thick^  close,  and  dbun- 
dant,  and  in  some  the  color  changing  to  white  ;  in  summer 
partly  shed,  and  much  more  loose  and  open.  The  reason 
for  these  changes — the  modifications  observable  in  the  fur 
of  animals  inhabiting  different  climates — the  adaptation  to 
the  requirements  of  the  animals,  manifesting  the  wisdom 
and  goodness  of  God. 

II.  Qualities. — Soft — formed  of  hairs,  therefore  said 
to  be  hairy — the  difference  between  the  skin  and  the  fur — 
the  one  soft  and  flexible,  the  other  stiff  and  somewhat 
harsh — in  what  way  it  is  fitted  for  the  wants  of  the  animals 
of  which  it  forms  the  covering — why  we  say  it  is  warm  ? 
Lead  them  to  observe  that  it  is  neither  hot  nor  cold  to  the 

*  It  is  the  design  of  this  lesson  that  either  the  mole  itself,  or  a  stuffed 
specimen,  should  be  presented  to  the  class.  If  a  picture  is  used,  the  form 
of  the  lesson  must  be  changed  somewhat  to  correspond. 


FUR.  189 

touch,  but  that  as  it  does  not  allow  the  warmth  of  the 
body  to  pass  away,  we  say  it  is  warm^  and  so  of  other 
objects. 

III.  Uses  to  man. — Made  into  muffs,  capes,  cloaks,  caps, 
&c.  The  qualities  which  fit  it  for  such  uses — warmth,  soft- 
ness, and  flexibility. 

SKETCH   II. 

I.  Fur  producing  countries. — ^These  pointed  out  on  the 
map,  as  Hudson  Bay  Company's  territory ;  Russian  Amer- 
ica ;  Siberia,  the  most  important — the  wild,  dreary,  and 
desolate  character  of  these  countries — the  animals  inhabit- 
ing them  alone  rendering  them  of  any  commercial  import- 
ance— refer  especially  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  terri- 
tory ;  the  extent  and  character  of  their  possessions ;  the 
time  and  manner  of  establishment ;  the  factories  and  their 
situations.     (All  this  described  to  the  children.) 

n.  Hunting  season  and  hunters. — Hunting  season — 
why  at  a  particular  time  ?  Question  here  as  to  the  changes 
necessary  in  clotuing  on  the  approach  of  winter  ;  and  lead 
the  children  to  see,  that  as  this  is  the  season  when  animals 
require  most  warmth,  so  it  is  the  season  when  fur  is  the 
thickest;  hence  the  time  when  it  is  most  valuable,  and 
hence  also  the  hunting  season.  Speak  of  hunters,  and  the 
preparation  for  hunting — qualities  of  a  good  hunter — cau- 
tious in  disturbing,  dexterous,  and  fertile  in  invention,  bold 
and  courageous  in  attacking  and  securing — why  are  these 
qualities  essential  to  a  good  hunter  ? 

ni.  Contrast  Furs  of  Arctic  and  Tropical  Regions. — 
'Contrast  the  fur  of  animals  found  in  northern  latitudes  with 


190  FOURTH    STEP. — LESSON   XXXI. 

those  met  with  m  the  tropics  and  warmer  regions  :  in  the 
first  it  is  rich,  fine,  close,  silky,  and  warm ;  in  the  second, 
although  beautiful  in  appearance,  yet  thin  and  scattered, 
neither  adapted  for  warmth,  comfort,  nor  general  use — 
contrast  northern  and  tropical  climates,  to  lead  the  children 
to  see  the  necessity  for  this  difierence  of  covering — show 
that  the  difierence  in  fur  of  northern  and  tropical  climates, 
arises  from  the  same  cause  as  that  which  marks  a  diflference 
in  the  fur  of  the  same  animals  at  difierent  seasons — a  beau- 
tiful evidence  of  design  in  the  seal — inhabiting  the  arctic 
regions,  great  warmth  necessary — under  the  skin  of  the 
common  seal  a  thick  layer  of  fat;  in  the  fur  seal  no  such 
layer  found,  but  the  animal  is  covered  with  a  rich,  curly, 
silky  down,  among  which  is  scattered  long  coarse  hair — 
the  uses  to  which  this  fur  is  applied — the  preparation  it  un- 
dergoes, and  beauty  of  its  appearance. 

IV.  Uses  to  marij  and  qualities  which  render  it  useful. 
Enumeration  of  uses  to  which  fur  is  applied,  and  the  chil- 
dren led  to  observe  the  qualities  which  render  it  so  exten- 
sively useful.  (The  children  are  supposed  to  have  been 
previously  made  acquainted  with  fur.) 

V.  Processes  which  Fur  undergoes  to  fit  it  for  use. 

1.  The  state  in  which  the  skins  are  received  by  the 
furrier. 

2.  Cleansing — use  of  saw-dust — efiect — state  of  skin — 
diflference  between  the  skin  of  arctic  and  tropical  animals- 
manner  in  which  it  is  softened  and  made  thinner — prepara- 
tions for  making  it  up  into  the  articles  required — laid  in 
the  saw-dust — why  ? — effect — advantages  taken  of  the  pli- 
ability of  the  skin  in  this  state. 


THE     PIG.  191 

3.  Dyeing — how  the  appearance  of  the  darker  furs  is 
obtained  in  this  operation — difference  between  the  dyeing 
of  the  fur  seal  and  beaver,  and  that  of  other  animals — the 
simplicity  of  the  first  operation — tedium  of  the  second,  and 
skill  necessary  for  the  performance. 

LESSON   XXXII. 

THE   PIG. 

I.  Get  the  children  to  name  the  parts  of  the  pig,  and 
give  a  description  of  each — as  its  head,  small  and  tapering 
— its  ears,  large  and  flat,  hanging  down  on  each  side  of  its 
head  like  two  flaps — its  eyes,  small,  round,  and  sleepy-look- 
ing— the  snout,  which  connects  the  nostrils  and  the  mouth, 
is  large  and  armed  with  strong  teeth,  and  terminates  in  a 
hard,  gristly  substance — the  neck,  short  and  thick — the 
body,  cylindrical,  and  covered  with  long  coarse  hairs  called 
bristles — the  legs,  short  and  thin — the  feet,  cloven — the 
skin,  coarse  and  thick. 

II.  The  habits  of  the  pig  spoken  of — as  that  it  eats  all 
kinds  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  even  in  a  putrid 
state;  also,  bran  and  meal,  and,  indeed,  anything  that 
comes  in  its  way — its  habits  dirty  and  disgusting — it  is 
fond  of  rolling  itself  about  in  the  mud — why  ? — to  get  rid 
of  the  vermin  with  which  it  is  infested — and  spends  all  its 
time  in  eating  and  sleeping — it  never  attacks  other  animals 
but  in  self-defence — it  seems  to  know  when  a  storm  is  ap- 
proaching, for  it  runs  toward  its  sty  screaming  violently, 
and  gathers  all  the  straw  into  a  heap  to  hide  itself — the  pig 
is  subject  to  a  disease  from  its  gluttonous  habits — it  lives 


192  FOURTH    STEP. LESSON   XXXII. 

for  18  or  20  years,  and  is  found  in  almost  every  country  of 
the  world. 

III.  Question  the  children  as  to  the  adaptation  of  its 
parts  to  its  habits,  &c.,  by  comparing  the  one  with  the 
other,  the  children  making  the  conclusions — the  large  ears, 
which  flap  about  on  a  hot  day  and  prevent  the  flies  from 
getting  into  them  and  teasing  the  animal — does  not  require 
very  strong  sight — its  small  eyes  are  sufficient  for  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  God  has  placed  it — also  the  long 
flexible  snout,  terminating  in  a  ring  of  gristle,  fitting  it  for 
grubbing  in  the  mud  for  its  food,  and  rooting  up  vegeta- 
bles ;  were  it  furnished  instead  of  this  with  a  soft,  fleshy 
mouth,  the  animal  would  not  be  able  to  do  this  without 
pain  and  inconvenience — the  large,  strong  teeth,  which 
help  it  in  mastication — it  is  covered  with  stiff  bristles  ;  were 
it  covered  with  hair  or  fur,  it  could  not  roll  about  in  the 
mud  without  collecting  much  dirt  on  its  body — also,  that 
its  hard,  thick  skin  makes  it  almost  insensible  to  the  blows 
it  so  often  receives — ask  who  made  the  pig,  and  lead  the 
children  to  see  and  admire  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of 
God,  in  making  all  its  parts  so^eautifully  adapted  to  their 
various  uses. 

As  the  children  are  describing  the  parts,  write  the 
name  and  description  of  each  on  the  board,  that  they  may 
be  aided  when  they  consider  the  adaptation  of  the  parts  to 
the  wants  of  the  animal.  The  children  should  state  this 
afterward  on  their  slates. 


ON   SOLUBILITY.  193 

0]Sr    SOLUBILITY. 
LESSON    XXXIII. 

REMARKS. 

Lessons  on  objects  may  be  followed  by  instruction 
on  qualities  with  which  the  children  are  familiar.  The 
following  lesson  will  explain  what  is  here  recommended  : 

LESSON  ON  SOLUBILITY. 

The  teacher  develops  the  ideas  for  which  she  afterward 
gives  terms,  by  means  of  simple  experiments.  First  she 
fills  half  full  with  water  three  glass  tubes ;  she  then  adds 
to  one  a  pinch  of  Epsom  salts,  to  another  a  few  grains  of 
sugar,  to  the  third  some  powdered  marble,  and  shakes 
each  for  a  few  moments. 

Teacher. — I  wish  you  to  describe  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  mixtures. 

Pupils. — 1st.  The  salts  and  the  sugar  have  disappeared. 
2d.  Melted  in  the  water.  3d.  Dissolved  in  the  water. 
The  marble  remains  the  same. 

Teacher. — Right ;  the  salt  and  sugar  have  dissolved  in 
the  water ;  the  marble  is  not  dissolved.  Do  you  know 
what  those  substances  are  termed  that  dissolve  in  water  ? 

Pupils. — Soluble. 

Teacher'. — What  are  those  termed  which  do  not  dis- 
solve ? 

Pupils. — Insol  ubl  e . 


194  FOURTH    STEP. LESSON    XXXIII. 

Teacher. — ^Tell  me  the  names  of  several  soluble  bodies  ? 

Pupils. — Sugar,  Epsom  salts,  gum,  salt. 

Teacher. — ^^fell  me  some  that  are  insoluble. 

Pupils. — Marble,  stone,  wood,  tin,  slate. 

Teacher. — What  has  become  of  the  sugar  that  dis- 
solved ?     Is  it  destroyed  ? 

Pupils.^No  ;  it  is  in  the  water  ? 

Teacher. — How  do  you  know  that  it  is  in  the  water  ? 

Pupils. — We  can  taste  sugar  when  it  is  dissolved  in  our 
tea,  or  in  water. 

Teacher. — Would  it  be  useful  to  give  a  particular  name 
to  a  liqui'd  that  has  dissolved  any  substance,  in  order  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  that  has  not  any  substance  dis- 
solved in  it  ? 

Pupils. — Yes. 

Teacher. — Such  liquids  are  called  solutions;  what, 
therefore,  is  formed  by  the  experiments  made  ? 

Pupils, — A  solution  of  Epsom  salts  in  water,  and  an- 
other of  sugar  in  water. 

Teacher. — Is  there  a  solution  of  marble  formed  ? 

Pupils  — No  ;  for  the  marble  would  not  dissolve. 

Teacher. — Does  the  water,  or  the  sugar,  or  both  to- 
gether, form  the  solution  ? 

Pupils. — Both  together. 

Teacher. — A  liquid  used  to  dissolve  a  solid  is  termed  a 
solvent.    What  can  we  say  of  water  ? 

Pupils. — It  is  a  solvent  of  Epsom  salts,  sugar,  &c. 

Teacher  takes  two  equal  portions  of  Epsom  salts  and 
places  each  in  a  tube,  with  equal  quantities  of  water.  One 
is  left  undisturbed,  while  the  other  is  heated  in  the  flame 


ox   SOLUBILITY.  195 

of  a  spirit  lamp.  The  pupils  are  required  to  state  what 
result  they  observe. 

Pupils. — ^The  water  that  has  been  made  hot  has  dis- 
solved the  salts  very  quickly,  and  also  in  greater  quantity. 
(The  experiment  should  be  made  with  the  sugar  also.) 

Teacher. — What  would  you  say  of  the  effects  of  hot 
liquids  on  soluble  bodies? 

Pupils. — Hot  liquids  dissolve  substances  more  quickly 
and  in  greater  quantities  than  cold  ones. 

Teacher. — This  is  generally,  but  not  invariably,  true. 
There  are  some  bodies  upon  which  cold  and  hot  water  has 
the  same  effect.     Common  salt  is  an  example. 

Teacher  makes  another  experiment ;  placing  two  equal 
quantities  of  sugar  in  water,  allowing  one  to  remain  undis- 
turbed, and  shaking  or  stirring  the  other.  Pupils  to  tell 
the  result  observed. 

Pupils. — The  sugar  in  the  shaken  tube  dissolves  first. 

Teacher. — Try  and  explain  why  this  is  so. 

Pupils. — When  the  tube  is  shaken,  every  part  of  the 
solid  is  affected  by  the  solvent  which  dissolves  it ;  but 
when  the  sugar  lies  at  tho  bottom,  the  water  at  the  top 
does  not  help  to  dissolve  it. 

Teacher  then  places  a  large  lump  of  sugar  in  a  spoon, 
and  puts  it  into  a  tumbler  of  water,  holding  it  near  the 
top  ;  and  then,  placing  the  tumbler  between  the  pupils  and 
the  light,  requires  them  to  say  what  they  observe. 

Pupils. — Little  wavy  lines  fall  from  the  spoon. 

Teacher. — Can  you  tell  what  causes  this?  Consider 
what  is  happening  to  the  sugar. 

Pupils. — ^It.is  dissolving. 


196  FOURTH    STEP. — LESSON   XXXIII. 

Teacher. — What,  then,  is  being  formed  ? 

Pupils. — A  solution  of  sugar. 

Teacher, — What  becomes  of  the  solution,  as  it  is 
formed  ? 

Pupils. — It  is  that  which  we  see  falling  through  the 
water. 

Teacher. — Right ;  but  why  does  the  solution  sink  in 
the  water  ? 

Pupils. — It  must  be  because  it  is  heavier  than  water. 

Teacher. — It  is  so ;  every  solution  formed  by  a  solid  in 
water  is  heavier  than  water.  Knowing  this,  can  you  tell 
me  why  men  swim  more  easily  in  the  sea  than  in  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  even  more  easily  still  in  the  Dead  Sea  ? 

Pupils. — Sea  water  is  a  solution  of  salt,  and  being 
heavier  than  fresh  water,  a  man  would  not  so  easily  sink 
in  it. 

Teacher  next  places  a  quantity  of  common  salt  in  a 
tube,  and  pours  over  it  about  twice  its  weight  in  water, 
shaking  it  for  some  time — then  asks  what  has  happened. 

Pupils. — Part  of  the  salt  is  dissolved,  and  part  is  left — 
the  water  does  not  dissolve  it  atH 

Teacher. — You  are  correct ;  water  will  not  dissolve 
more  than  one-third  of  its  weight  of  salt ;  and  when  it  re- 
fuses to  dissolve  more,  it  is  said  to  be  saturated.  What 
kind  of  a  solution  is  then  formed  ? 

Pupils. — A  saturated  solution. 

Teacher. — Water,  as  we  have  seen,  will  dissolve  more 
of  some  bodies,  as  Epsom  salts,  when  it  is  heated.  If  we 
were  to  heat  a  cold  solution  of  Epsom  salts,  what  do  you 
think  would  happen  ? 


ON    SOLUBILITY.  197 

Pupils. — It  would  then  dissolve  more  salts,  showing 
that  it  would  not  be  saturated  by  the  same  quantity  of  salt 
as  it  was  when  cold. 

Teacher  puts  some  powdered  sealing  wax  into  two 
tubes,  and  pours  into  one  cold  water,  into  the  other  spirits, 
and  then  shaking  them,  asks  the  pupils  to  say  what  differ- 
ence they  observed  in  the  two. 

Pupils. — The  sealing  wax  has  dissolved  in  the  spirits, 
and  not  in  the  water. 

Teacher. — ^Is  sealing  wax  a  soluble  or  insoluble  body  ? 

Pupils. — It  is  both  ;  soluble  in  spirits,  insoluble  in 
water 

Teacher. — What  kind  of  liquid  is  a  solvent  to  sealing 
wax,  and  other  resinous  bodies  ? 

Pupils. — Spirits. 

Teacher  repeats  the  last  experiment,  substituting  gum 
for  seahng  wax. 

Pupils. — ^The  gum,  contrary  to  the  sealing  wax,  dis- 
solves in  the  water,  but  not  in  the  spirit ;  it  is  also  soluble 
and  insoluble. 

Teacher. — It  is  so ;  but  when  no  particular  solvent  is 
named,  it  is  always  understood  to  be  water ;  hence,  in  or- 
dinary language,  gum  is  said  to  be  soluble ;  sealing  wax 
insoluble ;  the  solvent,  water,  being  understood.  India 
rubber  is  an  example  of  a  solid,  insoluble  in  all  ordinary 
liquids,  but  soluble  in  coal  tar,  naphtha ;  the  solution  thus 
obtained  is  used  for  making  waterproof  (Macintosh)  cloth- 
ing, by  employing  it  to  cement  together  two  thin  layers  of 
cloth. 

The  pupils  then  should  be  required  to  mention  all  the 


198  FOURTH   STEP. — LESSON   XXXIH. 

new  terms  they  have  learnt,  or  any  like  them ;  as  soluble, 
insoluble,  solve,  solvent,  solution,  dissolve,  dissolving,  solu- 
bility, insolubility,  saturated. 

Teacher. — Do  you  observe  a  resemblance  in  these 
words  ? 

Pupils. — Yes  ;  they  all,  except  saturated,  have  solve  or 
solu  in  them. 

Teacher. — ^The  meaning  of  that  root,  as  it  is  called  (for 
it  is  like  the  root  of  a  plant,  the  part  from  which  the  other 
parts  spring),  is  to  loose ;  it  comes  from  a  Latin  word 
solvo^  to  loose — ^the  v  being  changed  into  u  ;  the  word  sol- 
uble then  means,  being  able  to  be  loosed,  or  to  have  parti- 
cles separated  by  the  action  of  a  liquid.  What  would  in- 
soluble mean  ? 

Pupils. — In  stands  for  not,  therefore  it  means  not 
fi,oluble. 

Teacher. — I  wish  you  now  to  sum  up  the  various  parts 
of  the  lesson,  so  as  to  connect  the  whole  together. 

Bodies  that  are  capable  of  dissolving  a>re  called  soluble/ 
those  not  capable  of  doing  so,  insoluble.  When  we  speak 
of  a  body  possessing  solubility^  W«  say  it  will  dissolve.  A 
liquid  that  dissolves  a  solid  is  termed  a  solvent;  and  a  solu- 
tion is  a  solid  dissolved  in  a  liquid.  When  the  solution 
will  hold  no  more  of  the  substance  dissolved  in  it,  we  say 
it  is  saturated. 

Teacher. — These  terms  are  sometimes  used  metaphori- 
cally— that  is,  applied  to  what  is  of  a  different  nature ;  try 
and  remember  some  examples. 

Pupils. — To  solve  a  question. 

Teacher. — Which   means,  to   take  it  to  pieces  or  un* 


ON   THE   SENSES.  199 

loose  it.  What  similar  use  of  any  of  these  terms  do  you 
recollect  ? 

Pupils. — Dissolution  of  partnership. 

Teacher, — What  does  this  mean  ? 

Pupils, — That  it  is  unloosened;  the  partners  are  no 
longer  united  together. 

Teacher. — And  what  do  we  mean  when  we  call  death  a 
dissolution? 

Pupils — That  the  body  crumbles  to  pieces;  its  parts 
are  all  loosened  or  separated. 


ON    THE    SENSES. 

LESSON    XXXIV. 

The  children  having  been  already  exercised  in  determin- 
ing by  which  of  the  senses  they  discover  the  presence  of 
any  quality,  may  be  led  to  consider  more  fully  the  senses 
themselves.  The  first  two  lessons  are  drawn  out  for  the  use 
of  the  teacher ;  the  substance  only  of  the  others  is  given. 

Teacher. — Do  you  understand  how  you  gained  the 
knowledge  of  various  qualities  ? 

Children. — By  our  senses. 

Teacher. — How  do  you  know  when  a  thing  is  red  or 
blue  ? 

Children. — By  sight. 

Teacher. — How,  if  you  were  blind,  could  you  form  a 
correct  idea  of  color?  What  other  means  is  there  of 
gaining  this  knowledge  ? 

Children. — None. 


200  FOURTU   STEP. LESSOK   XXXIV. 

Teacher, — ^True;  and  to  ascertain  this  point,  a  blind 
man  was  once  questioned  as  to  what  notion  he  had  of  scar. 
let ;  he  said  he  thought  that  it  must  be  like  the  sound  of  a 
trumpet.  It  is  obvious  that  he  had  no  correct  idea  of  a 
quality  discoverable  by  the  sight,  and  he  could  only  com- 
pare it  wnth  one  that  he  had  acquired  through  the  medium 
of  another  sense.  Can  you  tell  me  the  reason  why  persons 
born  deaf  cannot  speak  ? 

Children. — They  cannot  imitate  sounds,  because  they 
never  heard  any. 

Teacher. — Since,  then,  deaf  persons  have  no  correct 
ideas  of  sound,  nor  blind  persons  of  color,  how  do  we  ac- 
quire our  ideas  of  sound  and  color? 

Children. — By  the  means  of  the  senses  of  seeing  and 
hearing. 

Teacher. — How,  then,  do  we  suppose  our  minds  become 
stored  with  ideas  ? 

Children. — By  the  exercise  of  our  senses.* 

Teacher. — Yes ;  and  if  you  had  once  had  the  idea  of  a 
dog  formed  in  your  mind,  by  seeing  such  an  animal,  when 
a  dog  is  mentioned  you  can  recall  the  idea,  and  fancy  one 
immediately,  as  if  it  were  present;  your  mind  wdll  also 
perform  tho  same  operation  when  a  quality  is  spoken  of, 
which  you  have  previously  seen  in  some  object.  Again, 
if  you  see  a  dog  unlike  any  you  have  observed  before,  yoq 
compare  it  with  the  species  with  which  you  are  acquainted, 
and  mark  the  difference  between  them.     If  I  say  that  \ 

*  It  is  probable  that  children  would  not  at  once  arrive  at  this  conclii 
sion.     The  teacher  must,  in  that  case,  lead  them  to  it  by  easy  questiona 


ON   THE   SENSES.  201 

have  some  green  paper,  canoot  you  immediately  conceive 
the  color  of  which  I  speak  ? 

Children. — Yes. 

Teacher. — ^Did  you,  then,  exercise  your  sight  ? 

Children. — No. 

Teacher. — How,  then,  could  you  have  the  idea  of 
green  ? 

Children. — We  remembered  it. 

Teacher. — By  what  means  did  you  first  obtain  the  idea  ? 

Children. — By  seeing  something  green. 

Teacher. — What  power  of  the  mind  do  you  exercise  in 
recalling  an  idea  ? 

Children. — Our  memory. 

LESSON    XXXV. 

FEELING      OR      TOUCH. 

Teacher. — ^What  part  of  your  body  is  the  organ  of 
touch  ? 

Children. — It  seems  all  over  our  body. 

Teacher. — Tell  me  some  parts  that  do  not  possess  the 
sense  of  feeling. 

Children. — ^Our  hair,  nails,  and  teeth. 

Teacher. — ^And  in  other  animals,  what  parts  are  found 
destitute  of  sensation  ? 

Children. — ^The  hoofs,  horns,  claws,  feathers,  wool,  hair, 
&c. 

Teacher. — What  other  word  do  we  use  to  express  the 
presence  of  sensation  ? 

Children. — Sensibility. 
9* 


202  FOJRTU    STEP. LESSOX   XXXV. 

Teacher. — What  word  would  you  use  to  express  the 
absence  of  sensation  ?  What  syllable  prefixed  to  a  word 
gives  it  a  negative  meaning  ? 

Children. — hi. 

Teacher. — Well,  what  word  will  express  the  absence  of 
sensation  ? 

Children. — Insensibility. 

Teacher. — The  parts  then  that  you  have  named  are 
insensible,  and,  with  the  exception  of  these,  the  sense  of 
feeling  exists  everywhere  throughout  the  body  ;  but  what 
part  of  it  is  particularly  adapted,  by  its  form,  to  become 
the  organ  of  the  sense  ? 

Children. — The  hand. 

Teacher. — Tell  me  what  qualities  we  can  discover  in 
objects  by  this  sense  ? 

Children. — That  they  are  hard,  soft,  rough,  smooth, 
long,  short,  sharp,  blunt,  round,  square,  cylindrical,  conical, 
heavy,  light,  fluid,  liquid,  dry,  wet,  hot,  cold,  &c. 

Teacher. — By  what  general  term  would  you  express 
such  qualities  as  round,  square,  conical,  <fec.  ? 

Children.— ^y  shape. 

Teacher. ^^Y  what  general  term  wou-ld  you  express 
such  qualities  as  large,  small,  &c.  ? 

Children  — By  size. 

Teacher. — By  what  general  term  would  you  express 
such  quaHties  as  rough,  smooth,  &c.  ? 

Children. — By  kind  of  surface. 

Teacher. — By  what  general  term  would  you  express 
such  qualities  as  hard,  soft,  fluid,  tenacious,  &c.? 

Children. — By  kind  of  substance. 


ON   THE    SENSES.  203 

Teacher. — By  what  general  term  would  you  express 
such  qualities  as  heavy,  light,  &c.  ? 

Children. — By  weight 

Teacher. — Now  arrange  the  qualities  which  you  dis- 
cover by  your  feeling  under  five  general  heads,  i.  e.,  shape^ 
eize,  kind  of  surface,  kind  of  substance,  weight. 

The  children  having  performed  this  exercise,  the  teach- 
er may  mention  the  following  facts. 

Teacher. — The  quickness  and  accuracy  of  the  sense  of 
feehng  is,  we  find,  much  increased  by  exercise,  as  is  exem- 
plified in  blind  persons,  the  defect  of  whose  sight  is  fre- 
quently compensated,  in  a  great  measure,  by  an  exquisite 
sensitiveness  of  touch.  Bats  also  appear  to  possess  this 
sense  in  a  remarkable  degree.  They  have  been  observed, 
even  after  loss  of  sight,  and  with  their  ears  and  nostrils 
stopped,  to  fly  through  intricate  windings  and  passages, 
without  striking  against  the  walls,  and  also  to  avoid  fines 
and  cords  placed  in  their  way.  The  expanded  membrane 
that  serves  them  for  wings  is  probably  the  seat  of  this  deli- 
cate sense  of  feeling,  which  so  admirably  fits  them  for  their 
nocturnal  and  dark  abodes.  The  palpi,  or  feelers  of  in- 
sects, possess  the  same  quality  very  acutely,  and  this  en- 
ables them  to  explore  the  surface  of  bodies  in  search  of 
food,  and  warns  them  also  of  the  approach  of  danger. 

The  class  should  be  required,  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
lesson,  to  draw  up  some  account  of  this  sense,  mentioning 
where  it  resides,  what  qualities  fall  within  its  cognizance, 
and  to  recapitulate  any  incidental  information  received 
during  the  lesson. 


204  FOURTH    STEP. ^LESSON   XXXVI. 

LESSON    XXXVL 

SIGHT. 

The  eyes  are  the  organs  of  sight,  and  are  beautifully 
adapted  for  the  office  they  have  to  perform.  They  are  so 
constructed  as  to  allow  us  to  see  things  near,  or  at  a  dis- 
tance ;  to  confine  ourselves  to  the  inspection  of  one  ob- 
ject, or  to  take  in  at  once  a  large  sphere  of  vision.  The 
part  of  the  eye  which  admits  the  light  may  be  expanded 
or  contracted,  according  as  the  rays  are  more  or  less  pow- 
erful. This  fact  is  remarkably  exemplified  in  the  eyes  of 
the  cat  and  of  the  owl.  Indeed  nothing  affords  a  more 
striking  proof  of  the  kind  providence  of  God  than  the 
beautiful  adaptation  of  the  eyes  of  animals  to  their  peculiar 
modes  of  life ;  those  of  moles,  fishes,  and  birds,  are  remark*- 
able  illustrations  of  this  fact.* 

Of  all  the  senses,  that  of  sight  is  in  most  frequent  and 
continual  exercise.  It  fills  the  mind  with  the  greatest  va- 
riety of  ideas,  which  it  gathers  not  only  from  the  objects 
of  nature  and  of  art,  but  from  the  writings  of  the  wise  and 
good  of  all  ages. 

The  qualities  we  discover  by  this  sense  are :  transpa- 
rent, semi-transparent,  translucent,  opaque,  glimmering, 
bright,  dark,  sparkling,  dull ;  and  the  various  modifications 
of  color,  size,  and  shape.  Many  may  be  ascertained  either 
by  touch  or  sight ;  as  those  of  size,  form,  kind  of  surface, 
and  substance. 

*  The  teacher  should  here  fully  explain  to  the  class  the  circumstaocee 
referred  to,  and  give  other  similar  instances. 


ON   THE   SENSES.  205 

LESSON    XXXYII. 

HEARING. 

The  ears  are  the  organs  of  this  sense.  In  many  ani- 
mals the  ear  has  externally  the  form  of  a  trumpet,  and  is 
well  adapted  for  gathering  sound  and  bringing  it  to  a 
focus  ;  in  man  it  contains  many  convolutions  and  channels, 
which  receive  the  vibrations  of  air  in  every  direction,  and 
convey  them  to  the  part  called  the  drum,  which  is  the 
actual  seat  of  this  sense. 

The  formation  of  the  ears  of  animals  is  beautifully  ac- 
commodated to  their  peculiar  habits  of  life.  In  beasts  of 
prey  the  trumpet  part  is  inclined  forward,  easily  to  catch 
the  sound  of  those  they  are  pursuing.  But  animals  whose 
chief  means  of  protection  is  flight,  have  these  organs 
turned  backward,  that  they  may  be  readily  apprised  of  the 
approach  of  their  enemies. 

The  ears  are  the  medium  through  which  all  sensations 
of  sound  reach  the  mind ;  without  them,  we  should  be  de- 
prived of  the  advantages  of  verbal  instruction,  the  pleas- 
ures of  conversation,  and  the  charms  of  music. 

The  motion  of  the  parts  of  a  body,  or  the  collision  of 
one  body  against  another,  occasions  a  vibration  in  the  air, 
which  is  similar  to  the  effect  produced  on  water  when  a 
stone  is  thrown  into  it.  Circle  succeeds  circle,  till  the 
power  of  motion  is  exhausted  ;  and  just  as  any  light  sub- 
stance within  the  influence  of  these  undulations  is  agitated 
by  them,  so,  when  our  ear  is  within  reach  of  these  vibra- 
tions of  air,  the  sensation  of  sound  is  produced.*    The 

*  This  account  may  appear,  at  first  sight,  above  the  comprcliension  of 


206  FOUKTH   STEP. — LESSON  XXXVIH. 

chirping  note  of  the  cricket  is  occasioned  simply  by  the 
constant  friction  of  a  little  membrane  against  its  wings. 
When  two  bodies  are  rubbed  or  struck  together,  we  may 
in  most  cases  be  able  to  determine,  by  the  sounds  emitted, 
the  nature  of  the  substances  brought  into  contact.  Very 
different  sounds  are  occasioned  by  the  collision  of  metals 
from  that  which  wood  gives  out ;  and  the  sound  produced 
from  hollow  bodies  is  very  unlike  that  resulting  from  solid 
ones.  There  are  various  kinds  of  sounds ;  as  shrill,  deep, 
grating,  harsh,  loud,  soft,  harmonious,  sweet.  Animals 
produce  different  sounds.  The  cat  mews,  the  dog  barks, 
the  lion  roars,  the  ass  brays,  the  cow  lows,  the  horse 
neighs,  the  rook  caws,  the  goose  cackles,  the  cock  crows, 
the  fly  buzzes,  the  bee  hums.  Man  speaks,  laughs,  cries, 
shouts,  groans,  whistles,  sings. 

LESSON  XXXVIII. 

SMELL. 

The  nose  is  the  organ  of  this  sense;  its  cavities  are 
lined  with  a  thin  membrane  supplied  with  nerves  connect- 
ed with  a  principal  one,  which  is  essential  to  the  perception 
of  smell. 

By  means  of  this  sense  we  derive  all  our  ideas  of  odor. 
Though  not  so  important  to  man  as  the  other  senses,  yet 
it  adds  much  to  his  pleasure ;  and  to  many  animals  it  is 
essential,  directing  them  in  search    of  their  food.      The 

children ;  a  class,  however,  which  had  gone  through  the  preceding  exer- 
cises, was  found  fully  capable  of  understanding  it. 


ON   THE   SENSES.  207 

scent  of  dogs  is  peculiarly  fine,  and  on  this  account  they 
are  employed  in  the  chase. 

Odor  is  produced  by  exceedingly  small  particles  called 
effluvia,  which  escape  from  odorous  bodies;  these  diffuse 
themselves  in  the  atmosphere,  and  whenever  they  reach 
the  olfactory  nerves  they  occasion  the  sensation  of  smell. 
Heat  promotes  the  escape  of  these  particles,  which  are  of 
a  volatile  nature  ;  hence,  when  the  sun  shines  brightly,  the 
lowers  are  more  fragrant. 

LESSON^    XXXIX. 

TASTE. 

The  mouth  is  the  organ  of  taste.  The  skin  within  the 
mouth  is  finer  and  more  delicate  than  that  of  the  rest,  of 
the  body,  it  is  supplied  with  a  great  number  of  blood  ves- 
sels, and  covered  with  innumerable  papilla3.  Sapid  bodies, 
however,  before  they  excite  the  sensation  of  taste,  require 
to  be  moistened  by  the  saliva.  In  graminivorous  animals 
the  papillae  are  defended  from  the  action  of  the  stiff  bristles 
of  grass  and  corn  by  a  strong  skin,  which  being  perforated, 
allows  the  dissolved  juice  to  reach  the  seat  of  taste.  The 
principal  qualities  discoverable  by  the  taste  are  bitter, 
sweet,  acid,  pungent,  acrid,  luscious.  There  are  many 
others,  which  derive  their  names  from  the  substances  in 
which  they  exist :  as  salt,  spicy,  &c. 

Many  animals  have  some  one  of  the  senses  in  great 
perfection,  but  in  none  are  they  all  found  in  the  same  de- 
gree as  in  man. 


FIFTH      STEP. 

INTKODUCTOEY     REMARKS. 

The  following  lessons  may  be  advantageously  Used  as  a 
first  exercise  in  composition.  The  object  should  be  present- 
ed to  the  children,  and  they  should  continue,  as  before,  to 
make  their  own  observations  upon  it.  Questions  should 
then  be  addressed  to  them,  calculated  to  elicit  their 
knowledge  of  its  natural  history,  manufacture,  or  compo- 
sition :  and  further  particulars  should  afterward  be  com- 
municated by  the  teacher,  to  render  their  information  more 
complete.  After  having  rearranged  and  repeated  the  mat- 
ter so  obtained,  the  teacher  should  examine  the  class,  and 
require  a  written  account.  Children  from  ten  to  fourteen 
years  of  age  may  derive  great  improvement  from  this  exer- 
cise in  composition.  It  will  stimulate  their  attention,  fur- 
nish a  test  of  their  having  well  understood  the  lesson,  and 
lead  them  to  arrange  and  express  their  ideas  with  clearness 
and  facility.  Artificial  substances  should  be  exhibited,  both 
in  their  raw  and  manufactured  state.  Thus,  in  the  lesson  on 
flaxj  the  plant  itself,  the  fibres  when  separated  from  the 
Btoni,  the  thread  when  spun,  and  the  various  articles  into 


GLASS.  209 

which  it  is  manufactured,  may  be  brought  before  the  class, 
and  likewise  pictures  of  the  machinery  employed  in  the 
manufacture. 

Many  of  the  lessons  in  this  Step  will  contain  too  much 
matter  to  be  presented  at  one  time  to  the  pupils,  and  must 
therefore  be  divided. 

The  information  given  is  exclusively  for  the  use  of  the 
teacher,  as  reference  in  the  preparation  of  lessons. 

Many  of  the  lessons  have  been  taken,  with  some  modi- 
fications, from  "  Information  on  Common  Objects."  Much 
aid  has  also  been  derived  in  their  preparation  from  the 
"  "New  American  Cyclopgedia,"  and,  in  a  few  instances, 
passages  have  been  literally  incorporated.  This  is  a  work 
which  teachers  would  do  well  to  consult  where  accessible. 

The  following  sketches,  three  on  glass,  and  three  on 
silk,  are  given  as  specimens  of  the  way  succeeding  lessons 
may  be  treated. 

LESSON   I. 

I.  Different  kinds  of  Glass  compared. — Bring  together 
several  pieces  of  different  kinds  of  glass,  and  ask  the  chil- 
dren to  name  each — as,  crown  glass,  plate  glass,  sheet  glass, 
flint  glass,  bottle  glass.  These  pieces  should  be  examined 
by  the  children,  that  they  may  point  out  the  difference, 
They  should  name  the  various  uses  to  which  they  have 
seen  glass  applied,  and  the  particular  use  of  each  kind  ;  as, 
for  windows,  mirrors,  drinking  glasses,  decanters,  orna- 
ments, bottles,  watch  glasses,  &g. 

Qualities  of  Glass. — ^The  class  should  be  called  on  to 
name  the  qualities  in  glass  which  render  it  useful ;  as  trans- 


210  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   I. 

parency,  hardness,  durability,  not  being  affected  by  weather 
or  acids,  &c. 

Glass  contrasted  with  substances  used  in  former  times. 
Other  substances  possessing  the  same  qualities,  but  in  a 
less  degree,  should  be  shown  the  class,  named,  and  a  con- 
trast drawn,  for  the  purpose  of  proving  the  superiority  of 
glass  over  these  substances.  Thus,  horn  has  not  the  same 
degree  of  transparency ;  parchment  is  not  so  durable ; 
mica  does  not  admit  the  light  so  freely ;  and  none  of  the 
three  have  the  same  bright,  cheerful,  beautiful  appear- 
ance that  glass  has. 

II.  Various  substances  used  in  the  manufaxiture. — ^The 
various  substances  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  should 
then  be  produced  and  named — as,  sand,  an  alkali  (as  pearl- 
ash),  nitre,  oxide  of  lead,  oxide  of  manganese,  oxide  of  ar- 
senic, lime,  &c. ;  and  the  children  should  be  led  to  see  that 
each  ingredient  imparts  a  particular  quality  to  glass. 
Pearlash,  which  is  much  used  in  flint  glass,  imparts  much 
clearness.  Oxide  of  lead  is  used  to  cause  it  to  vitrify  at  a 
much  lower  temperature  than  it  otherwise  would;  to  in- 
crease the  density,  and  to  impart  tenacity. 

III.  Origin  and  history  of  Hie  manufacture. — Informa- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  children  with  respect  to  the 
progress  of  the  manufacture,  and  of  its  supposed  origin. 
They  should  be  told  of  the  glass  beads  and  imitations  of 
precious  gems  found  in  Egypt  with  mummies  more  than 
3,000  years  old,  and  of  hieroglyphics  that  must  be  as  old 
as  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt ;  the  relics  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  and  other  facts  which  seem  to 
point  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  that  country  as  the  first 


GLASS.  211 

manufacturers  of  glass  ;  the  many  fine  specimens  of  glass  in 
urns  and  vases  which  are  seen  even  at  the  present  day,  and 
which  show  to  what  an  extent  the  manufacture  was  carried. 
They  should  be  told  of  the  introduction  of  glass  making 
into  Europe — first  into  Italy,  finally  into  England  ;  from 
thence  into  the  United  States  by  deserters  from  the  British 
army  in  the  time  of  the  Revolution;  but  that  glass  was 
used  very  much  in  England  long  before  the  art  of  making 
it  was  known  to  the  English  ;  for  even  as  far  back  as  the 
time  of  the  Druids,  we  find  glass  beads  and  amulets  worn, 
which  were  procured  in  barter  with  Syrians,  who  came  to 
Great  Britain  for  tin. 

Recapitulation. — After  receiving  this  information,  which 
should  be  thoroughly  worked  into  the  children's  minds  as 
the  teacher  proceeds,  they  should  reproduce  the  matter  on 
their  slates. 

LESSON   n. 

I.  Glass  house  and  tools  used. — In  this  lesson  the  chil- 
dren should  (after  recapitulating  the  last  lesson)  give  a  de- 
scription of  any  glass  house  which  they  may  have  seen,  and 
also  of  the  different  tools  used  by  those  who  work  in  glass. 
If  they  have  not  seen  one,  a  small  model  or  picture  may  be 
shown,  representing  the  different  parts.  They  should  de- 
scribe the  conical  shaped  building — the  furnace  in  the  cen- 
tre, with  the  working  holes  at  the  sides — the  pots,  which 
are  made  of  the  finest  clay — their  position  and  number — 
tools  used  by  the  glass  blower,  as  iron  tube,  shears,  punt- 
ing rod,  tongs,  &c.  They  should  then  be  asked  as  to  how 
the  men  on  the  premises  are  generally  employed ;  some  in 


212  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   II. 

glass  blowing ;  others  in  attending  to  the  furnace,  carrying 
coals,  and  others  watching  the  pots,  &c. 
"  II.  Processes  gone  through  in  the  manufacture  of  Glass. 
The  children,  having  noticed  how  the  workmen  were  em- 
ployed, will  be  prepared  to  learn  the  different  processes 
gone  through  in  the  manufacture  of  glass.  As  a  difference 
exists  in  the  making  of  each  kind,  the  children  may  be  led 
to  speak  of  window  glass  only,  as  they  are  better  acquaint- 
ed with  that  than  with  the  others,  and  more  frequently  see 
how  that  particular  kind  is  used.  They  should  first  be  told 
that  window  glass  is  that  which  is  generally  used  for  win- 
dow panes  ;  and  should  say  what  qualities  window  glass  re- 
quires that  are  not  of  so  much  importance  in  other  kinds ; 
as  hardness,  transparency,  and  durability;  and  they  should 
then  be  led  to  see  that  in  order  to  give  the  glass  these 
qualities,  a  slight  difference  must  be  made  both  in  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  ingredients  used.  The  children 
should  be  told  that  such  substances  as  lead,  or  metallic  ox- 
ides, make  glass  soft  and  plastic  ;  and  they  will  at  once  see 
that  very  little  of  these  must  be  used  in  making  window 
glass,  in  which  greater  hardness  is  requisite.  They  should 
be  told  of  the  different  processes  gone  through — first,  the 
preparation  of  the  sand  by  water,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving any  impurities — next,  the  making  of  frit,  and  what 
frit  is — the  process  of  melting  it  down  after  having  kept 
it  for  some  time.  The  metal  in  a  liquid  state  should  be 
spoken  of — the  time  allowed  to  pass  before  skimming  the 
metal.  The  children  should  be  told  that  broken  glass  is 
very  useful  at  this  stage  of  the  manufiicture.  The  glass 
thus  used  is  known  by  the  name  of  cullet,  and  is  thrown  in 


GLASS.  213 

with  the  boiling  metal.  They  should  be  told  next  of  the 
workman — the  tube  which  he  uses — his  mode  of  forming 
the  mass  of  metal — first,  to  a  pear  shape — then,  to  a  flat 
surface.  A  description  should  be  given  of  the  process 
of  annealing — what  is  its  object — why  it  is  necessary — 
what  qualities  it  will  impart  to  the  glass. 

This  lesson  should  be  reproduced  in  writing. 

LESSON    III. 

I.  On  Stained  Glass. — Several  pieces  of  glass  of  differ- 
ent colors  should  be  brought  before  the  children.  They 
should  examine  and  describe  them,  and  ascertain  whether 
the  colors  are  merely  external,  or  whether  they  are  such  as 
cannot  be  removed  without  destroying  the  glass.  They 
should  be  asked  where  they  had  seen  glass  of  different 
colors  ? — If  they  had  seen  figures  represented  on  glass  by 
means  of  colors — and  where  ?  They  should  be  led  to  name 
the  kind  of  buildings  in  which  colored  glass  is  generally 
seen;  such  as  churches,  or  ecclesiastical  edifices  of  any 
kind ;  particularly  in  those  where  the  object  is  to  make  an 
imposing  appearance.  Many  churches  and  cathedrals  have 
very  fine  windows  of  stained  glass. 

II.  The  teacher  under  this  head  will  describe  the  pro- 
cess of  glass  staining,  dwelling  on  the  following  points  : — 
The  pattern,  or  drawing  of  the  figures  to  be  represented, 
which  is  first  made.  The  mode  of  placing  this  behind  the 
glass  for  the  purpose  of  painting  the  pattern,  the  mate- 
rials being  prepared  beforehand.  A  description  should  be 
given   of  the  muffle,  or  iron  box,  in  which   the  glass  is 


214  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   IV. 

burned.  The  care  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  glass  stain- 
ers  should  be  noticed.  The  fusing  of  the  glass  and  its  ab- 
sorption of  coloring — the  time  allowed  in  the  furnace — the 
removal  of  the  loose  particles  of  paiut.  The  class  should 
be  told  that  the  color  is  produced  by  fusing  gold,  silver, 
and  copper  with  the  glass ;  and  that  gold  is  used  in  pro- 
ducing rose  color  and  ruby;  copper  in  producing  blue, 
green,  and  lemon  ;  and  silver  and  lead  in  producing  yellow 
and  orange  ;  they  will  easily  see  what  colors  in  glass  bring 
the  most  money,  which  are  most  expensive. 

LESSOI^    IV. 

SKETCHES   OP   A   SERIES   OF   LESSONS   ON  SILK   AND  ITS 
MANUFACTURE. 

For  an  Advanced  Class  of  Children. 

INTBODUOTION   AND  NATURAL   niSTORY   OF   THE   SILK   WORM. 

I.  Object  examined. — A  piece  of  silk  is  given  to  the 
children,  which  they  carefully  examine,  and  are  then  called 
upon  to  describe  its  appearance;. as,  smooth,  soft,  glossy — 
next,  they  discover  and  name  t"he  qualities  upon  which  its 
use  and  beauty  depend,  viz. :  its  strength,  which  is  great, 
considering  the  fineness  of  the  fibres  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed— its  lightness — ^lustre — capability  of  taking  the  finest 
dyes — it  resists  fire  better  than  cotton  fiibrics  do— is  beau- 
tifully soft  to  the  touch,  and  extremely  pliable,  so  that  it 
can  be  arranged  in  folds. 

[Note. — Specimens  of  the  insect  m  all  its  stages  should  be  shown  to 
the  children,  and  constantly  referred  to  in  the  course  of  the  lesson.] 


SILK.  215 

II.  Description  of  the  Silk  Worm. — Insect  and  its 
habits  described.  Show  the  children  that  the  silk  worm  is 
erroneously  termed  a  worm.  Why  ?  It  is  really  a  kind 
of  caterpillar,  and  passes  through  all  the  changes  which  in- 
sects undergo. 

Changes  ichich  the  insect  imdergoes. — Many  of  the 
children  have,  perhaps,  tried  to  rear  a  silk  worm,  and  will 
therefore  know  that  it  is  hatched  from  an  cgg^  in  size  like 
a  mustard  seed ;  and  is,  when  first  hatched,  small,  and  of 
a  dark  color ;  in  a  iaw  days  it  becomes  gray,  then  tinged 
with  the  color  of  its  food ;  it  attains  its  full  size  in  about 
eight  weeks,  and  it  has  during  this  period  changed  its 
skin  four  or  five  times.  Children  to  determine  why  this  is 
necessary — its  continually  increasing  size.  The  insect  re- 
mains in  a  quiet  state  before  doing  this ;  refrains  from  cat' 
ing ;  then  bursts  the  old  skin  near  the  head,  and  works  its 
way  out. 

Length,  when  full  grown,  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
inches.  What  does  it  then  do  ?  Begins  to  spin.  Tell  the 
children  that  it  selects  a  corner  in  which  to  spin,  then 
moves  its  head  from  side  to  side,  and  fixes  the  thread  at 
diiferent  points,  so  as  completely  to  enclose  itself — con- 
tinues to  spin  for  about  five  days — during  this  time  it  has 
become  much  shorter — changes  its  skin,  and  takes  the  form 
of  a  chrysalis,  enclosed  in  a  dark  brown  case,  and  is  in  a 
torpid  state — remains  in  this  state  two  or  three  weeks — 
then  changes  into  the  moth  or  perfect  insect.  The  children 
will,  perhaps,  wonder  how  the  moth  can  escape  fi-om  the 
cocoon  in  which  it  is  so  completely  enclosed.  Tell  them 
that  the  little  creature  does  this  by  softening  a  portion  of 


^16  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   IV. 

the  cocoon  with  a  fluid  which  it  has  the  power  of  forming. 
It  is  now,  as  they  will  see  from  the  specimen,  a  moth  of  a 
pale  cream  color,  covered  with  fine  down,  and  furnished 
with  small,  comb-like  feelers.  After  a  short  time  it  lays  its 
eggs,  firmly  cementing  them  to  the  substance  on  which 
they  are  deposited  ;  and  the  object  of  its  existence  being 
thus  accomplished,  it  shortly  dies.  Children  should  draw  a 
comparison  between  the  animal  in  its  different  stages,  as  to 
appearance,  organs,  and  habits. 

III.  Food. — On  what  does  the  silk  worm  feed  ?  The 
leaves  of  the  mulberry  tree.  Children  will  know,  that  as 
this  tree  is  not  an  evergreen,  the  leaves  can  only  be  pro- 
cured at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  Has  this  anything 
to  do  with  the  hatching  of  the  eggs  ?  Yes ;  they  must 
only  be  hatched  in  those  seasons  when  the  leaves  can  be 
obtained  ? 

Means  used  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  hatching  at  a 
wrong  season. — Sometimes  the  eggs  are  sent  from  one 
country  to  another.  How  are  they  prevented  from  hatch- 
ing on  the  journey  ?  They  are  first  carefully  dried  ;  placed 
in  glass  vials,  closely  sealed,  to  exclude  the  air  and  moist- 
ure, and  then  immersed  in  earthen  pots  filled  with  cold 
water,  which  is  constantly  changed.  Why  ?  To  keep  it 
cool.  Why  should  so  much  pains  be  taken  to  exclude  the 
air  from  the  Qg^^  and  to  prevent  their  becoming  warm  ? 
Because  the  eggs  of  the  silk  worm,  like  those  of  the 
chicken,  and  other  animals  with  which  the  children  are 
acquainted,  are  hatched  by  heat. 

Manner  of  hatching  the  eggs. — ^The  children  might 
then  be  told  the  different  means  used  to  hatch  the  eggs. 


SILK.  •  217 

That  in  some  countries  the  peasants  fold  them  in  small 
paper  packets,  and  keep  them  in  their  bosoms  until  the 
wamath  prepares  them  for  hatching ;  in  others,  that  the 
warmth  of  the  sun  is  employed ;  but  that  the  plan  most 
generally  adopted  is  to  hatch  them  by  placing  them  in 
rooms  artificially  heated. 

IV.  Countries  of  the  Silk  W^onn, — A  warm  climate  is 
necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  silk  worm.  Children 
name  and  point  out  on  the  map  some  warm  countries,  as 
France,  Italy,  India,  China,  &c.  They  might  then  be  told 
that  the  silk  worm  is  reared  in  nearly  all  the  southern  coun- 
tries in  Europe  :  to  a  very  great  extent  in  India  and  China. 
That  it  was  originally  a  native  of  China,  from  whence  arti- 
cles manufactured  of  silk  were  exported  in  early  ages  to 
different  parts  of  Asia  and  Europe  ;  and  that  the  raw  mate- 
rial furnished  employment  to  manufactui-ers  in  Persia,  Tyre, 
and  other  countries.  That  in  the  United  States  many  ef- 
forts have  been  made  to  introduce  its  manufacture,  but 
with  very  limited  success. 

How  ititroduced  into  Europe. — The  silk  worm  was  in- 
troduced into  Europe  a.  d.  552,  by  two  Persian  monks, 
who  were  missionaries,  and  had  travelled  as  far  as  China, 
where  they  viewed  with  great  curiosity  the  dress  of  the 
Chinese,  and  carefully  watched  the  manufacture.  On  leav- 
ing China  they  went  to  Constantinople,  and  entrusted  the 
Emperor  Justinian  with  their  secret ;  he  encouraged  them 
by  promising  them  a  reward  if  they  succeeded  in  intro- 
ducing the  manufacture  into  Europe.  They  returned  to 
China,  with  much  difficulty  obtained  a  quantity  of  eggs, 

cunningly  concealed  them  in  a  hollow  cane,  brought  them 
10 


218  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    V. 

to  Constantinople,  hatched  them,  tended  the  insects  with 
great  care,  and  instructed  the  Romans  in  the  art  of  manu- 
facturing silk.  The  children  will  thus  see  that  the  silk 
manufacture  in  Europe  had  a  very  small  beginning — a 
caneful  of  eggs  being  the  means  of  establishing  the  manu- 
facture, and  of  furnishing  the  Europeans  with  a  luxury, 
for  which  large  sums  had  hitherto  been  exacted  from  them 
by  their  Oriental  neighbors. 

This  and  the  following  lessons  should  be  reproduced  by 
the  children  in  writing. 

LESSON    V.  '• 

BRIEF   DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   SILK   MANUFACTURE. 

I.  Different  processes  in  the  manvfacture. — How  is  the 
silk  obtained  from  the  cocoon  ?  What  is  the  first  process 
in  the  manufacture?  The  destruction  of  the  chrysalis. 
How  is  this  accomplished?  By  placing  it  in  a  heated 
oven.  What  is  next  done  ?  The  rough,  outer  floss, 
which  is  comparatively  useless,  is  removed,  and  the  co- 
coons are  thrown  into  a  vessel  of  hot  water  placed  over  a 
fire.  Why  ?  To  loosen  the  thread.  The  whole  is  now 
stirred  with  a  little  broom,  which  catches  the  loose  ends 
of  the  threads.  Several  of  these  threads  taken  together 
are  wound  upon  a  reel.  Wliy  take  several  together  ?  Be- 
cause the  fibres  are  so  fine  that  one  taken  alone  would  not 
be  strong  enough,  it  would  quickly  break.  The  silk  wound 
off  is  next  tied  up  into  hanks  ready  for  the  manufacturer, 
and  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  raw  aHJcJ*'* 


SILK.  219 

[Note. — It  is  desirable  that  drawings  or  models  of  the  mactines  used 
in  the  dififerent  stages  of  the  manufacture  should  be  placed  before  the 
children,  and  constantly  referred  to  by  the  teacher  while  describing  the 
various  processes.  Except  with  the  most  advanced  pupils  ihe  remainder 
of  this  and  the  next  sketch  may  be  omitted.] 

11.  Various  operations  which  the  raw  silk  undergoes. — ■ 
Briefly  describe  the  various  processes  which  the  raw  silk 
passes  through,  as  winding,  spinning,  twisting,  cleaning, 
weaving,  and  dyeing ;  all  of  which,  except  the  last,  are 
known  under  the  general  term  "  silk  throwing.^^ 

Winding, — In  this  operation  each  hank  of  silk  is  ex- 
tended upon  a  six-sided  reel  {swift).  A  number  of  swifts 
are  arranged  side  by  side,  upon  an  axis,  on  either  side  of  a 
frame.  Above  the  swifts  are  the  bobbins,  similarly  ar- 
ranged, one  bobbin  for  each  swift.  The  bobbins  connect- 
ed with  the  swifts  by  the  ends  of  the  hanks  of  silk  are 
now  set  in  motion,  causing  the  swifts  to  turn  round  and 
wind  the  silk.  The  machine  requires  constant  attention. 
Why?  For  the  purpose  of  joining  the  ends  broken  in 
winding,  putting  on  the  hanks,  and  exchanging  the  bob- 
bins. 

Spinning. — ^The  silk  is  now  sorted  according  to  its 
qualities  and  fineness.  The  next  process  is  that  of  spinning 
or  twisting  each  thread,  which  is  done  in  a  mill,  where  it 
acquires  that  form  called  "  singles.'^''  How  is  this  effected  ? 
The  long  thread  of  silk  is  unwound  from  the  bobbins  on 
to  a  long  roller,  and  in  its  passage  from  one  to  the  other 
becomes  twisted.  How  can  this  be?  The  bobbins  are 
fixed  upright,  and  the  roller  is  placed  horizontally  above 
them ;  this  circumstance  alone  is  sufficient  to  twist  the  silk 


220  FIFTH    STEP. ^LESSON   V. 

while  passing  from  one  to  the  other.  Two  or  more  of 
these  singles  are  now  twisted  slightly  together  in  the  man- 
ner above  described ;  the  next  operation  is  to  spin  these 
combined  threads  into  a  firm,  thick  thread,  which  is  per- 
formed m  the  same  manner  as  the  former  spinning. 

Cleaning. — One  process  only  remains  before  the  silk  is 
fit  for  the  weaver,  viz.,  the  cleaning.  How  is  this  per- 
formed ?  The  silk  is  boiled  for  four  hours  in  a  large 
quantity  of  water,  into  which  a  good  deal  of  soap  has  been 
thrown.  Why  does  the  silk  require  cleaning  ?  Because  it 
still  retains  the  gum,  with  which  the  insect  covers  it,  which 
if  not  removed,  renders  the  silk  harsh  to  the 'touch,  and 
unfit  to  receive  the  dye.  By  cleaning,  however,  the  silk 
becomes  soft  and  glossy.  It  is  now  sent  to  the  loom, 
where  it  is  woven  into  various  fabrics.  In  a  long  piece  of 
woven  silk  the  long  threads  are  called  the  "  warp^''  and 
the  cross  threads  the  '•''weft^''  or  ''^woof.'''*  These  words, 
and  any  others  new  to  the  children  which  may  occur  in  the 
lesson,  should  be  written  upon  the  board,  and  the  beads  of 
the  lesson  also,  as  it  greatly  assists  the  children  in  after- 
ward reproducing  it  on  their  own  slates.  Before  conclud- 
ing the  subject  of  weaving^  the  teacher  might  show  the 
children  the  great  care  and  patience  necessary  on  the  part 
of  the  weaver,  in  consequence  of  the  fineness  of  his  work  ; 
a  piece  of  silk  20  inches  in  width,  often  requiring  8,000 
threads,  all  of  which  must  be  arranged  with  the  greatest 
regularity. 

Dyeing, — Can  the  chiWren  think  of  any  process  which 
the  silk  has  yet  to  undergo  before  it  is  fit  for  sale  ?  Of 
what  color  is  it  now  ?    Did  the  cleaning  alter  the  color  ? 


SILK.  221 

N"o ;  it  is  still  of  a  bright  yellow  color.  But  white  silk  is 
sometimes  wanted-^how  is  this  obtained  ?  The  silk  must 
be  "  bleached^''  made  white,  and  then  it  is  fit  also  for  the 
dyer,  who,  by  means  of  his  colors,  can  make  the  silk  of 
any  shade  he  pleases. 

LESSON    VI. 

SKETCH    III. BEIEF   DESCKIPTION     OF   TUE   VARIOUS   FABRICS 

COMPOSED    OF    SILK. 

[Note. — The  required  specimens  should  be  procured,  and  shown  to 
the  children.] 

I.  Articles  made  of  Silk  named. — Children  furnish  the 
list.  Velvet — silks,  plain  and  brocaded — Persian — damask 
— ribbon — satin — sarsnet,  and  crape.  The  value  of  silk 
inferred  from  the  number  of  articles  manufactured  from  it, 
and  the  great  difference  in  their  texture. 

II.  Description  of  the  Fabrics. —  Velvet — One  of  the 
most  beautiful  productions  of  the  silk  loom  now  manufac- 
tured. In  addition  to  the  warp  and  woof,  a  soft  shag  or 
pile  is  produced  by  inserting  short  pieces  of  silk  thread, 
doubled,  under  the  woof;  these  stand  up  in  so  large  a 
number  and  so  compactly  as  to  conceal  the  interlacings  of 
the  warp  and  woof.  The  children  will  see,  from  examining 
a  piece  of  velvet,  that  it  is  this  silky  pile  which  imparts  to 
velvet  its  softness  and  beauty. 

Brocade. — Brocaded  silks  are  those  adorned  with  flow- 
ers or  other  figures  of  silk. 

Gauze. — A  material  in  which  the  smallest  quantity  of 
Bilk  is  employed  for  a  given  size  of  woven  fabric.    How  can 


222  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON   VI. 

this  be  done  ?  If  the  gauze  were  woven  in  the  usual  way, 
the  threads  being  so  fine,  it  would  be  very  weak.  How  is 
this  prevented  ?  The  threads  are  made  to  cross  and  over- 
loop  each  other,  (something  like  the  threads  of  a  net,)  and 
thus  the  material  acquires  the  requisite  strength.  The 
children  to  discover  this  intertwining  of  the  threads  by 
carefully  examining  a  piece  of  gauze. 

Bomhazine^  Poplin^  and  Lustre. — Examined,  and  found 
to  be  substances  composed  of  a  mixture  of  silk  and  worst- 
ed, the  two  latter  containing  much  more  silk  than  the 
former. 

Satin. — A  twilled  silk,  owing  its  peculiar  lustre  to  the 
number  of  threads  of  warp  passed  over  by  the  woof  before 
it  passes  under  one  of  them.  When  taken  out  of  the  loom, 
it  presents  a  slight  degree  of  roughness  or  flossiness.  How 
is  this  removed  ?  The  children  can  all  tell  how  their  aprons 
look  after  they  have  been  washed  and  dried.  Are  they  fit 
to  wear  ?  No ;  they  look  rough.  How  do  they  feel  ? 
Very  stiff  and  uncomfortable.  How  can  this  roughness  be 
removed  ?  They  must  be  ironed  to  make  them  smooth. 
Then  how  do  they  think  satin  can  be  made  so  nice  and 
smooth  ?  Just  in  the  same  nlanner,  it  is  passed  between 
heated  iron  rollers,  which  smooth  down  the  surface,  and 
give  to  it  that  beautiful  lustre  peculiar  to  satin. 


EEMAEKS.  223 


THE  VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 

EEMAEKS. 

The  nature  of  the  objects  which  we  derive  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  their  utility  to  man^  depend  so 
much  on  the  structure  and  living  action  of  the  plants, 
that  some  introductory  account  of  the  latter  seems  de- 
sirable. 

The  most  important  parts  of  a  plant  are:  the  root, 
stem,  branches,  leaves,  buds,  flowers,  fruit,  and  seeds. 

The  root  is  that  part  of  a  plant  which  grows  under 
ground ;  it  serves  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  plant  firmly 
and  of  absorbing  moisture  for  its  support ;  it  is  usually 
more  or  less  fibrous,  and  the  absorption  of  moisture  takes 
place  almost  entirely  at  the  very  extremities  or  points  of 
the  fibres. 

In  some  plants  the  root  often  serves  as  a  storehouse  of 
nourishment  for  their  growth  during  the  following  year. 
This  is  the  case  in  those  plants  which,  like  the  carrot  and 
parsnip,  instead  of  flowering  in  the  first  year  of  their 
growth,  produce  and  store  up  nourishment  for  the  second 
year,  when  they  bring  forth  flowers  and  seeds.  Plants 
growing  in  this  manner  are  termed  biennials,  and  the  nu- 
triment stored  up  during  the  first  year  in  their  large  fleshy 
roots  is  often  used  for  food  by  men  and  animals. 

The  stem  or  trunk  of  a  tree  consists  of  three  distinct 
parts;  in  the  centre  is  a  light,  soft,  cellular  substance, 
termed  the  pith  ;  which  in  some  plants,  as  the  elder,  is  suf- 
ficiently large  to  be  readily  examined ;  its  use  appears  to  be 


224  FIFTH    STEP. — VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 

to  convey  the  sap  upward  to  the  leaves  when  the  plant  is 
very  young,  and  before  other  channels  are  formed  for  its 
ascent ;  as  the  plant  increases  in  age,  the  pith  becomes  dry, 
is  apparently  of  no  further  use,  and  may  be  removed  with- 
out injury  to  the  life  of  the  tree. 

I  The  pith  is  surrounded  by  the  wood,  which  consists  of 
tough,  strong  fibres,  firmly  united  together,  so  as  to  form  a 
solid  substance;  these  fibres  are  arranged  side  by  side, 
running  in  the  direction  of  the  stem  or  trunk  :  they  cause 
what  is  termed  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  are  cut  across 
when  a  piece  of  wood  is  cut  against  the  grain^  and  torn 
from  each  other  when  it  is  spht  with  the  grain. 

Every  summer  a  fresh  quantity  of  wood  is  formed 
round  that  previously  existing ;  each  season's  growth  is 
therefore  of  necessity  a  hollow  cylinder,  inclosing  the  wood 
previously  formed,  and  the  appearance  it  exhibits  when 
the  tree  is  cut  across  is,  of  course,  circular,  the  whole 
mass  of  wood  being  formed  of  a  series  of  such  circles, 
each  the  result  of  one  year's  growth ;  it  follows  that  by 
counting  them  we  may  ascertain  the  age  of  the  tree ;  the 
first  year's  wood  is  next  the  pith,  that  formed  the  second 
year  is  outside  tliat  of  the  first  year,  and  so  on ;  a  fresh 
circle  being  deposited  each  year  external  to  those  pre- 
viously formed. 

If  a  single  circle  is  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
vessels  are  larger  and  more  open  in  that  part  which  is 
nearest  the  centre  of  the  tree ;  this  arises  from  the  fact 
that  this  is  formed  in  the  spring,  when  growth  is  more 
rapid,  and  the  leaves  require  a  larger  quantity  of  sap ;  in 
Bome  woods,  the  great  difference  between  the  inner  and 


REMARKS.  225 

outer  part  of  each  circle,  renders  the  rings  very  distinct, 
as  in  oak,  ash,  and  elm ;  in  others,  as  beech  and  mahog- 
any, the  texture  is  much  more  uniform ;  in  the  wood  of 
the  fir  tribe,  the  pores  are  filled  with  resinous  matter,  ren- 
dering the  circles  very  evident. 

The  oldest  wood  in  a  tree  is  toward  the  centre  of  the 
trunk ;  this  is  termed  the  heart  wood ;  the  youngest  and 
softest  is  at  the  outside,  and  is  called  the  sap  wood,  be- 
cause it  is  through  it  that  the  sap  rises  to  supj^ly  the 
leaves ;  the  sap  wood  is  gradually  converted  into  heart 
wood  as  it  grows  older,  the  pores  and  interstices  being 
filled  up  and  darkened  in  color  by  the  thickened  juices, 
which  descend  from  the  leaves  through  the  back,  and 
reach  the  older  circles  by  means  of  a  series  of  passages 
passing  inward  from  the  bark  to  the  pith.  These  medul- 
lary passages  or  rays  (termed  by  carpenters  the  silver 
grain,  from  their  giving  a  glistening  appearance  to  the 
wood  when  it  is  cut  parallel  to  them)  are  large  and  readily 
observed  in  oak  or  beech,  while  in  fir  wood  they  are  small, 
numerous,  and  not  easily  distinguished.  For  purposes  re- 
quiring strength  and  durability  only  the  heart  wood  is 
employed;  timber  trees  should  be  felled  at  mature  age, 
when  the  heart  wood  is  well  formed,  and  before  any  decay 
has  commenced ;  the  best  season  for  felling  is  winter, 
when  the  sap  is  present  in  very  small  quantities ;  after 
having  been  felled,  they  should  be  seasoned  by  an  expo- 
sure to  dry  air  for  at  least  two  years,  otherwise  the  wood 
will  warp  and  split  when  used ;  well-seasoned  timber  em- 
ployed in  dry  situations  is  extremely  durable  ;  if  wholly 
sunk  in  water,  the  durability  is  much  lessened,  and,  when 
10* 


'226  FIFTH    STEP. VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 

exposed  to  alternate  moisture  and  drought,  all  timber  de- 
cays rapidly. 

In  its  power  of  resisting  pressure,  timber  may  be  re- 
garded as  incompressible  in  the  direction  of  its  fibres ;  but 
pressed  at  right  angles  to  the  grain,  the  softer  kinds,  such 
as  fir,  shrink  considerably ;  in  resisting  a  force  pulling  in 
opposite  directions,  timber  possesses  enormous  strength; 
bars  of  oak  or  fir  one  inch  square  being  capable  of  support- 
ing upward  of  five  tons ;  in  bearing  a  cross  strain,  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  vary  considerably,  some,  as  fir,  &c.,  being 
much  weakened  by  the  tendency  of  the  annual  circles  to 
separate  from  each  other. 

The  uses  of  the  wood  to  the  tree  are  to  give  firmness 
and  strength  to  the  stem,  and  to  serve  as  a  channel  for  the 
ascent  of  the  sap  to  the  leaves  and  flowers. 

Around  the  wood  is  the  bark.  This  also  is  formed  in 
circles,  but  they  are  so  pressed  together  by  the  growth  of 
the  wood  beneath  that  they  cannot  readily  be  counted. 
The  bark  varies  much  in  character  in  difierent  trees,  being 
sometimes  fibrous,  as  in  the  bass  tree,  so  much  employed  by 
gardeners  and  nurserymen  ;  leathery,  as  in  the  bark  of  the 
birch,  of  which  boxes  and  canoes  are  made ;  or  corky,  as  in 
the  cork  tree  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

In  the  trees  of  tropical  climates  the  arrangement  of 
the  woody  matter  in  the  stems  is  very  dissimilar  to  that 
occurring  in  the  trees  of  temperate  countries  ;  there  is,  as 
it  were,  a  mixture  of  pith  and  woody  fibres  together,  and 
no  trace  of  circles  can  be  observed.  Such  trees  are  easily 
recognized  by  their  appearance,  as  they  are  almost  inva- 
riably destitute  of  branches,  bearing  merely  a  tuft  of  large 


REMARKS.  221 

leaves  on  the  top  of  the  trunk.  Of  this  kind  of  growth 
the  various  palm  trees  are  well  knowm  examples. 

Leaves  are  the  flat,  green,  expanded  bodies  growing  on 
the  branches.  Each  leaf  consists  of  a  framework  of  veins, 
which  is  sometimes  netted,  as  in  most  of  the  ordinary  leaves 
of  this  country,  and  sometimes  perfectly  parallel,  as  in  our 
grasses  and  grains,  and  in  all  the  trees  of  the  palm  tribe ; 
between  the  veins  is  the  pulp,  having  numerous  air  cavities 
passing  through  it  in  every  direction  ;  the  whole  is  covered 
w^ith  a  skin,  extending  over  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf,  that 
on  the  under  surface  being  pierced  wi'th  innumerable 
breathing  pores. 

The  action  of  the  different  parts  in  the  living  vegetable 
may  be  thus  briefly  described.  The  roots,  by  their  ex- 
treme points,  absorb  from  the  soil  water  containing  cer- 
tain mineral  and  other  substances ;  this  rises  through  the 
sap  wood,  and  is  conveyed  by  the  branches  into  the  leaves ; 
there  it  is  exposed  freely  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  water  escapes  by  evaporation  ; 
the  remainder  is,  by  the  influence  of  the  air  entering 
through  the  breathing  pores,  converted  into  the  nourish- 
ment required  for  the  support  of  the  plant  and  for  the 
formation  of  its  peculiar  products  and  secretions. 

Such  portion  of  the  sap  as  is  not  required  for  the 
growth  of  the  flowers  and  fruit  descends  by  the  bark,  and, 
passing  inward  by  the  medullary  rays,  is  stored  up  in  the 
heart  wood,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  biennials  during  their  first 
year's  growth,  descends  to  the  fleshy  root,  there  to  be 
stored  up  as  nutriment  for  use  during  the  next  season,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  carrot  and  parsnip. 


228  FIFTH    STEP. — VEGKIABLE  KINGDOM. 

When  any  peculiar  substance  of  a  medicinal  or  othei 
marked  character  is  produced  by  a  plant,  it  is  obvious  that 
we  may,  in  many  cases,  be  so  guided  by  a  knowledge  of 
these  facts,  as  to  obtain  it  in  the  greatest  quantity.  Thus, 
when  the  sap  is  first  absorbed  by  the  roots,  it  is  thin  and 
watery,  not  possessing  any  decided  properties.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  it  as  it  exists  in  the  sap  wood,  but  in  its 
altered  state  in  the  leaves  it  possesses  marked  and  decided 
properties  ;  hence  leaves  are  frequently  employed  for  me- 
dicinal or  other  purposes,  as  in  the  case  of  tea,  and  of  the 
sweet  herbs  used  in  cookery ;  as  the  altered  sap  descends 
by  the  bark,  that  part  becomes  charged  with  the  peculiar 
substances  which  the  plant  has  the  power  of  forming ;  and 
thus  bark  is  very  frequently  employed  in  the  arts,  and 
also  in  medicine.  Oak  and  other  barks  used  in  tanning, 
and  cinnamon  employed  as  a  spice,  may  be  taken  as  ex- 
amples. 

Should  the  wood  itself  be  required  for  the  sake  of  any 
substances  contained  in  it,  the  heart  wood  filled  with  the 
altered  sap  is  much  more  valuable  than  the  sap  wood. 

The  root,  also,  as  in  the  case  of  jalap,  rhubarb,  chicory, 
ifec,  <fec.,  is  often  charged  with  the  peculiar  principles  of  the 
plant  producing  it. 

The  flowers  consist  of  several  parts,  each  distinct  in  its 
structure  and  use  ;  the  outer  part,  usually  green  in  color, 
which  encloses  all  the  others  in  the  flower  bud,  is  termed 
the  calyx  or  flower  cup;  it  usually  consists  of  several  leaf- 
like parts  more  or  less  united  at  the  edges;  these  are 
termed  sepals. 

The  more  highly-colored  and  ornamental   part  of  the 


^OEK.  229 

flower  is  termed  the  corolla ;  this  also  consists  of  several 
leaf-like  parts,  which  are  termed  petals. 

The  corolla  surrounds  the  stamens,  which  are  small 
bodies,  exceedingly  variable  in  number,  consisting  of  an 
elongated  stalk  or  filament  crowned  by  an  enlarged  head 
or  anther. 

The  seed  vessel,  containing,  as  its  name  implies,  the 
young  seeds,  and  protecting  them  until  they  have  arrived 
at  maturity,  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  flower ;  it 
is  variously  situated,  being  in  some,  as  the  apple  and  cu- 
cumber, below  the  flower,  and  in  others,  as  the  cherry, 
within  it. 

.  Seeds  of  various  plants — as  grains,  pulse,  spices,  &c. — 
are  largely  made  use  of  by  man  for  food  and  other  pur- 
poses ;  as  they  contain,  stored  up  in  small  space,  a  quantity 
of  very  nutritious  matter  for  the  support  of  the  young 
plant  during  the  first  stages  of  growth,  before  it  has 
formed  roots  and  leaves,  so  as  to  obtain  its  own  nourish- 
ment from  the  earth  and  air. 

OBJECTS  DERIVED  FROM  THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 

Barh  mid  Stems. 

LESSON      YII. 

COEK. 

Natural  History. — Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  small  ever- 
green oak  which  grows  abundantly  in  Spain,  Portugal,  the 
south  of  France,  and  north  of  Africa.  When  the  tree  is 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  years'  old,  a  circular  cut  is  made 


230  FIFTH   STEP. LESSON   VII. 

around  the  trunk  immediately  below  the  branches,  and  an- 
other at  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  several  perpendicular 
incisions  are  then  made  from  one  to  the  other,  and  the 
cork  removed  by  inserting  a  blunt  instrument  underneath 
it,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  inner  bark,  which 
would  cause  the  death  of  the  tree.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed in  July  or  August,  and  is  repeated  every  eight  or 
ten  years  during  the  whole  life  of  the  tree,  usually  about 
150  years. 

The  cork,  when  lemoved,  is  slightly  charred  or 
scorched;  this  improves  it  by  closing  the  pores,  and  en- 
ables it  more  easily  to  be  flattened  by  pressure,  at  the 
same  time  giving  it  the  dark  color  and  burnt  odor  by 
which  it  is  distinguished. 

Uses. — The  qualities  that  render  cork  so  valuable  are : 
its  lightness,  its  being  compressible,  elastic,  and  impervious 
to  liquids  ;  its  lightness  renders  it  valuable  in  constructing 
lifeboats,  cork  jackets,  floats  for  fishing  nets,  and  other  pur- 
poses ;  its  being  compressible,  elastic,  and  impervious,  ren- 
ders it  fitted  for  closing  the  mouths  of  bottles,  as,  when 
fiiTiily  forced  in,  its  elasticity  causes  it  to  press  so  closely 
against  all  parts  of  the  mouth  as  to  prevent  the  contents 
from  escaping,  or  the  air  from  gaining  access. 

Cork  is  also  occasionally  used  in  thin  layers  to  form  the 
inner  soles  of  shoes  and  boots ;  it  is  cut  into  the  required 
shape  for  the  various  purposes  for  which  it  is  used  by 
means  of  broad  knives,  which  require  constant  sharpening. 
Bungs  for  casks  are  so  cut  that  their  flat  sides  correspond 
to  the  two  sides  of  the  cork,  while  bottle  corks  are  cut  in 
the  opposite  direction ;  the  latter  are  consequently  much 


CANES.  231 

fess  porous  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  and  afford  a 
more  secure  fastening. 

LESSON"    VIII. 

CANES. 

Natural  History. — Canes,  or  rattans,  are  the  long, 
slender  stems  of  a  species  of  palm  which  grows  wild  in  the 
forests  of  the  East  Indies,  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  the  ad- 
jacent islands ;  the  plants  are  remarkable  for  the  extraor- 
dinary length  of  their  stems,  which  occasionally  reach 
several  hundred  feet ;  they  are  abundantly  furnished  with 
hooked  prickles,  by  means  of  which  they  are  supported  on 
the  tops  of  the  highest  trees. 

The  sterns  are  cut  by  the  natives,  and  stripped  of  their 
leaves,  which  surround  them  like  a  sheath,  by  being  pulled 
through  a  notch  cut  in  a  tree  ;  they  are  then  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  tied  up  in  bundles  for  exportatior. 

Uses. — Canes  consist  chiefly  of  tough  woody  fibres, 
with  a  number  of  open  tubes  to  allow  the  ascent  of  the 
sap  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  supply  the  great  evaporation 
that  takes  place  from  the  leaves ;  on  the  outside  they  are 
covered  with  a  transparent  flinty  coating  of  extreme  hard- 
ness ;  canes  split  readily  in  the  direction  of  their  length, 
an-d  are  used  for  forming  the  open  lattice  work  of  the  seats 
of  chairs,  and  similar  purposes,  for  which  they  are  well 
adapted  by  the  toughness  and  strength  of  the  fibres,  and 
the  hardness  of  the  external  covering.  Those  are  es- 
teemed the  best  which  are  pale  in  color,  very  long,  thin, 
and  sufficiently  flexible  to  bend  without  cracking  the 
glazing. 


232  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   IX. 

In  addition  to  these  uses,  the  plant  yielis  ais  fcdibU 
fruit,  and  when  cut  across,  a  flow  of  wholesome^  refreshing 
sap  takes  place  from  the  end  of  tlie  stem ;  the  young 
shoots  also  furnish,  when  cooked,  a  pleasant  and  delicate 
ai  tide  of  food. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  canes  have  been  much  mor* 
largely  imported  than  formerly,  and  tbey  are  now  em- 
ployed for  coarse  basket  work  whicli  is  exposed  to  great 
violence  ;  for  this  their  great  strength  renders  them  valu- 
able. The  large  baskets  used  by  grocers,  bakers,  and 
other  trades,  for  heavy  goods,  are  now  also  frequently 
made  of  unsplit  canes. 

LESSON^    IX. 

CHARCOAi  , 

Preparation. — ^The  term  coal,  or  cole,  was  originally 
applied  to  wood  or  any  substance  used  for  fuel ;  hence  half 
burned  or  charred  wood  received  its  name  of  charcoal. 
Charcoal  is  prepared  by  setting  fire  to  a  heap  of  small 
wood,  almost  entirely  covered  witli:-a  layer  of  earth,  and 
when  the  whole  is  ignited  closing  the  openings  by  which 
air  has  been  allowed  to  enter,  the  fire  is  thus  put  out  and 
the  wood  remains  in  a  charred  state.  The  best  charcoal 
is  made  from  hard  wood. 

Properties. — Wood  charcoal  is  a  light  black  porous 
solid ;  showing  distinctly  the  annual  rings  and  structure  of 
the  wood  from  which  it  was  formed  ;  it  is  brittle  and  easily 
reduced  to  a  coarse  powder,  the  small  particles  of  which  it 
is  composed  being  exceedingly  hard.     It  is  perfectly  un- 


CIIAKCOAL.  2o3 

cliangeatle  in  air,  insoluble  in  water  or  in  the  strongest 
acids,  and  also  infusible  in  the  fire.  Heated  to  redness 
in  the  air,  it  burns  away  without  smoke,  producing  an  in* 
visible  but  fatally  poisonous  gas  termed  carbonic  acid.  It 
is  so  bad  a  conductor  of  heat,  that  a  piece  may  be  held 
in  the  fingers  within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  red  hot 
part. 

Uses. — Charcoal  is  remarkably  distinguished  by  its 
power  of  absorbing  gases  to  the  extent  of  man}^  times  its 
bulk ;  hence  it  is  frequently  employed  to  remove  any  un- 
pleasant odors  arising  from  putrefying  animal  substances, 
which  it  does  by  absorbing  them.  The  chief  use  of  char- 
coal is  as  fuel ;  it  is  much  more  largely  employed  for  this 
purpose  in  cities  than  in  the  country;  it  is  also  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  that  prepared  from 
the  black  alder  being  usually  selected.  Its  power  of  ab- 
sorbing odor  leads  to  its  use  in  correcting  the  smell  of 
tainted  meat;  and  it  is  sometimes  spread  upon  over-crowd- 
ed churchyards  with  the  same  view.  Powdered  peat  char- 
coal is  also  used  in  some  European  countries  to  absorb  the 
smell  of  ofiensive  manures  previous  to  their  being  spread 
upon  the  soil ;  and  water  is  frequently  purified  by  filtering 
through  a  layer  of  powdered  charcoal.  It  is  also  used  for 
polishing  hard  substances,  for  making  crayons,  and  in  med- 
icine. Animal  charcoal,  which  is  prepared  by  heating 
bones  to  redness  in  close  iron  vessels,  is  largely  used  in  the 
sugar  refineries,  as  when  syrup  made  from  raw  or  brown 
sugar  is  filtered  through  a  layer  of  it,  the  coloring  matter 
is  absorbed  by  the  charcoal,  and  the  syrup  becomes  color* 
less.     {See  Sugar.) 


23 A  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  IX. 

GRAIN    AND    PULSE. 

GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

Description. — The  plants  yielding  grain  are  annuals ; 
th«  wliol^  plant,  including  the  root,  dying  when  the  seed  is 
ripe;  their  stems,  which  are  termed  straw  or  culm,  aro 
liollov*^,  and  divided  into  lengths  by  partitions  across  the 
interior,  corresponding  with  knots  or  swellings  on  the  out- 
side ;  this  structure  is  evidently  intended  to  strengthen  the 
hollow  stalk ;  this  stem  is  covered  externally  with  a  sili- 
ceous or  flinty  varnish,  which  gives  a  peculiar  harshness  to 
the  straw.  The  leaves  arise  from  the  knots,  alternately  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  stem ;  each  leaf  has  a  broad,  flat  stalk, 
which  is  rolled  around  the  stem,  so  as  to  form  a  sheath, 
split  up  on  one  side  ;  the  blades  of  the  leaves  are  long,  and 
tapering  to  a  point ;  their  veins  run  straight,  and  parallel 
with  each  other,  from  the  base  to  the  point,  not  branching 
out  and  reuniting,  as  is  common  with  most  leaves ;  the  last 
leaf  of  the  stalk  forms  a  sheath,  which  is  securely  and 
closely  rolled  around  the  young  heads  or  ears  of  grain. 

Tiie  blossoms  of  the  grain  plants  are  formed  of  small 
scales,  which  are  at  first  green,  but  become  yellow  when 
ripe  ;  they  enclose  a  one-seeded  fruit  termed  a  grain  ;  the 
blossoms  are  usually  arranged  in  close  heads,  termed  ears 
or  spikes ;  grains  and  grasses  belong  to  the  same  tribe  of 
plants,  differing  only  in  respect  to  size ;  the  seeds  of  all 
grasses  might  be  used  for  food  if  they  were  large  enough 
to  answer  the  purpose,  as  no  grass  plant,  except  the  com- 
mon darnel,  is  unwholesome  when  in  a  healthy  state.     The 


BARLEY    AND    MALT*  235 

grains  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  starch  (see 
Starch)^  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  very  strengthening 
food  known  as  gluten,  a  variable  amount  of  oil  or  fat,  and 
small  quantities  of  sugar,  gum,  fibre,  and  other  substances. 

The  native  country  of  the  common  grains  is  unknown  ; 
with  the  exception  of  barley,  which  is  indigenous  in  Sicily 
and  the  interior  of  Asia,  they  are  not  found  anywhere  in  a 
wild  state;  but  are  probably  grasses  which  have  been  in- 
creased in  size  and  value  by  cultivation ;  when  allowed  to 
grow  wild,  they  soon  degenerate  and  cease  to  bear  seed 
sufficiently  large  to  be  available  for  the  food  of  man. 

LESSON  X. 

BARLEY     AND     MALT. 

Cultivation. — Barley,  next  to  wheat,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  grains  cultivated  in  this  country.  Like  most  of 
the  grains,  its  native  country  is  unknown,  and,  if  allowed 
to  grow  wild,  it  rapidly  degenerates. 

Two  distinct  kinds  are  cultivated — winter  barley  and 
spring  barley. 

Barley  is  a  very  hardy  grain,  capable  of  resisting  both 
heat  and  drought,  and  may  therefore  be  more  profitably 
grown  upon  poorer  soils  than  wheat ;  it  comes  quickly  to 
maturity,  and  ripens  perfectly  in  short  northern  summers, 
which  are  not  long  enough  to  admit  the  ripening  of  wheat ; 
it  is  the  latest  sown  and  the  earliest  reaped  of  all  our  sum- 
mer grains  ;  in  warm  countries  two  harvests  of  barley  are 
reaped  each  year — one  from  the  winter,  the  second  from 
the  spring  sown.     This  fact  explains  the  passage  in  Exodus 


236  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   X. 

iy,  31,  where  the  plague  of  hail  is  mentioned  : — "  The  flax 
and  the  barley  were  smitten,  for  the  barley  was  in  the 
ear  ; "  "  but  the  wheat  and  the  rye  were  not  smitten,  for 
they  were  not  grown  up."  This  plague  happened  in 
March  ;  the  first  crop  of  barley  was,  therefore,  nearly  ripe, 
having  been  sown  the  previous  autumn. 

In  this  country  barley  is  usually  sown  from  the  middle 
of  April  to  the  middle  of  May,  although  the  time  varies 
somewhat  in  different  localities,  and  is  sown  broadcast  by 
hand,  or  with  the  drilling  machine.  It  thrives  best  in  dry 
seasons ;  if  there  is  much  rain  it  becomes  sickly,  and  in 
vevy  wet  seasons  each  grain  will  sprout  in  the  ear,  and  the 
whole  is  rendered  worthless. 

Winter  barley,  as  its  name  implies,  remains  in  the 
ground  during  that  season,  and  is  usually  sow^n  in  October. 

The  quantity  of  barley  produced  on  an  acre  of  land  is, 
on  an  average,  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  bushels. 

Each  grain  of  barley  ends  in  a  long  awn  or  beard, 
which  is  broken  off  in  threshing ;  the  shape  of  a  grain  is 
doubly  conical,  being  pointed  at  the  ends,  and  there  is  a 
groove  on  one  side ;  from  its  tolerably  uniform  length,  it 
has  given  its  name  to  one  of  our  divisions  of  the  inch, 
namely,  one-third,  it  being  reckoned  that  three  barley 
corns  placed  end  to  end  make  one  inch  in  length. 

Uses. — ^The  great  use  of  barley  is  to  make  malt  for 
brewing  beer  and  distilling  spirits.  The  malting  of  barley 
is  performed  by  steeping  it  in  water  until  it  has  become 
soft  and  swollen  ;  it  is  then  taken  out  and  allowed  to  drain, 
and  remain  in  heaps  for  about  forty  hours,  during  which 
time  each  grain  begins  to  grow  or  germinate,  sending  out 


RYE.  237 

a  small  root,  as  it  would  if  planted  in  moist  earth ;  to  check 
this  growth,  the  barley  is  spread  out  to  dry  on  floors,  and 
afterward  heated  in  a  kiln ;  the  color  of  the  malt  variea 
with  the  heat  at  which  it  is  dried ;  the  darker  kinds  are 
used  for  brewing  porter,  and  the  lighter  for  ale.  After 
having  been  kiln  dried,  the  root  is  broken  off  by  stirring 
the  malt  with  spades,  and,  when  separated  by  sifting, 
forms  the  substance  known  as  malt  dust  or  malt  culm, 
which  is  used  for  sheep  feeding,  and  sometimes  as  manure. 

During  malting,  barley  undergoes  the  changes  that 
happen  to  all  seeds  during  germination  ;  the  starch  matter 
is  converted  into  sugar,  which  is  capable  of  being  dissolved 
in  the  juices  of  the  growing  plant  and  nourishing  it;  hence 
the  taste  of  malt  is  sweet,  and  it  is  the  sugar  which,  dis- 
solved by  boiling  water,  changes  during  fermentation  into 
the  spirituous  part  of  the  beer. 

Barley  does  not  form  a  palatable  bread  when  ground 
into  flour,  as  it  is  coarse,  dry,  and  apt  to  become  sour.  It  is 
sometimes  used  for  food,  especially  by  invalids,  in  the  form 
of  pearl  barley ;  this  is  formed  by  grinding  off  the  outer 
husks  in  mills  adapted  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  used  as  food  for  poultry,  and,  when  ground  into 
meal,  for  fattening  pigs,  turkeys,  and  other  animals. 

Barley  straw  is  of  considerable  value  as  fodder  for 
cattle  and  horses. 

LESSON    XL 

EYE. 

Cultivation. — ^Rye  is  a  grain  capable  of  growing  on 
lighter  and  poorer  soils,  and  in  colder  latitudes  than  the 


238  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XI. 

Other  varieties  of  grain.  It  is,  therefore,  the  prevailing 
grain  in  a  portion  of  Siberia,  the  North  American  Russian 
possessions,  the  northern  part  of  the  New  England  States, 
and  the  north  of  Europe.  It  requires  less  care  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  ground,  and  a  less  amount  of  manure  than 
is  given  to  either  wheat  or  barley ;  but  the  value  of  the 
produce  is  proportionably  small.  Rye  is  usually  sown  in 
the  autumn  after  a  crop  of  wheat,  although  the  nature  of 
the  previous  crop  is  not  of  great  importance.  It  is  sup* 
posed  to  be  a  native  of  the  desert  countries  round  the 
Caspian  Sea. 

Uses, — Rye  is  cultivated  for  several  distinct  pui*poses. 
The  ripe  grain,  ground  into  meal,  is  largely  used  by  the 
poorer  class  of  people  in  Russia,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Continent,  for  making  a  coarse,  heavy  kind  of  bread,  which 
is  very  dark  in  color,  and  unpalatable.  In  Holland  the 
ripe  grain  is  fermented,  and  a  distilled  spirit  obtained 
from  the  liquid.  Rye  straw  forms  the  best  material  for 
thatching,  and  is  much  used  for  making  straw  plait  for 
hats  and  bonnets. 

In  this  country,  rye  is  not  largely  used  for  food,  and  but 
a  limited  amount  of  it  is  raised.    •" 

It  is  only  on  the  poorer  and  more  barren  soils  that  it  is 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the  grain ;  but  in  some  situations 
near  poultry  yards  a  belt  of  it  is  sown  around  fields  of 
other  grains,  to  protect  them  from  fowls,  as  they  do 
not  relish  rye  as  food.  One  circumstance  that  ren* 
ders  rye  less  desirable  as  food  for  man,  is  the  occa- 
sional occurrence  of  a  disease  in  the  grain,  rendering  it 
extremely  unwholesome  ;   in  this  affection,  the  grains  en- 


OATS.  239 

large  very  considerably,  and  become  somewhat  like  the 
curved  spur  of  a  cock ;  hence  the  name  spurred  rye,  or  er- 
got of  rye.  From  this  diseased  grain  a  very  useful  medi- 
cine (secale  cornutum)  is  extracted. 

LESSON    XIL 

OATS. 

Qultwation. — The  native  country  of  oats  is  not  known 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  The  plant  flourishes  in 
colder  climates  and  seasons  than  any  other  grain,  and  is 
therefore  largely  cultivated  in  high  mountainous  countries, 
as  Scotland,  Norway,  and  Sweden.  In  appearance  it  dif- 
fers strikingly  from  the  other  grains,  the  flowers  being  ar- 
ranged in  loose  bunches,  so  that  each  hangs  with  the  open 
part  of  the  husk  toward  the  earth,  an  arrangement  which 
prevents  the  access  of  wet  to  the  grain. 

Several  varieties  are  known  in  this  country,  such  as  the 
white,  red,  black,  &c. 

Oats  are  usually  sown  in  April  or  May,  being  scattered 
broadcast  by  hand,  at  the  rate  of  from  four  to  six  bushels 
an  acre,  and  the  average  produce  is  from  thirty  to  fifty 
bushels. 

Uses. — Oats  form  an  exceedingly  wholesome  and,  at 
the  same  time,  very  nutritious  article  of  food ;  when  kiln 
dried  and  ground  into  coarse  meal,  they  form  the  food  of 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  people  of  Scotland  and  the 
north  of  England,  being  used  both  in  the  form  of  oaten 
cakes  and  porridge. 

When  the  seeds  are  deprived  of  the  husks  they  are 


k'tO  FIFTH    STEP. LESSOX   XIII. 

cvlled  oat  grits,  and  form  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious 
food  for  the  sick.  Except  in  this  form,  it  is  but  little  used 
for  food  in  the  United  States. 

The  great  consumption  of  oats,  however,  is  as  food  for 
horses  ;  for  this  purpose  they  are  employed  both  whole  and 
ground ;  they  are  also  used  for  feeding  geese,  ducks,  and 
other  poultry,  <fec 

The  ripe  straw  of  the  oat  is  regarded  as  more  nutri- 
tious than  any  other,  and  is  preferred  as  fodder  for  cat- 
tle ;  and  the  chaff  or  husk  of  the  grain  is  often  used  for 
stuffing  mattresses  among  the  Scotch  peasantry,  as  it  is 
soft,  elastic,  and  inexpensive. 

LESSON  XIII. 

RICE. 

Cultivation. — The  native  country  of  rice  is  undoubted- 
ly Asia,  in  the  warmer  parts  of  which  it  is  even  now  found 
growing  wild,  and  the  seeds  collected  for  food ;  from  Asia 
it  has  been  carried  by  man,  and  spread  over  the  warmer 
and  more  marshy  parts  of  Europe,  America,  and  Africa ; 
its  introduction  into  America^Jias  taken  place  within  the 
last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

The  great  peculiarity  in  the  cultivation  of  rice  is  the 
quantity  of  moisture  it  requires.  In  this  country,  for  ex- 
ample, it  is  sown  in  the  spring,  in  rows  or  trenches  eighteen 
inches  apart,  and  the  ground  is  flooded  with  water  for  sev- 
eral days  ;  when  the  plants  are  four  inches  high,  the  flood- 
ing is  repeated,  and  continued  for  a  fortnight ;  and  again 
a  third  time,  shortly  before  the  grain  ripens,  the  fields  are 


EICE.  241 

inundated,  and  remain  so  until  the  rice  is  ripe.  From  the 
swampy  state  of  the  soil  in  rice-growing  districts,  the  cul- 
tivation of  rice  is  a  most  unhealthy  occupation,  and  in  this 
country  it  is  left  almost  entirely  to  the  care  of  negro 
slaves.  On  the  grain  becoming  ripe,  the  water  is  drained 
off,  and  the  reaping  performed  with  a  sickle,  the  laborer 
sinking  deeply  in  the  soft  ground  in  which  the  plants 
grow. 

Rice  is  cultivated  in  very  ranch  the  same  manner  in 
Italy,  Lombardy,  and  Spain,  and  to  an  immense  extent  in 
India,  China,  and  Ceylon.  In  all  countries  the  best  rice 
fields  are  the  low  swampy  grounds  through  which  the 
large  rivers  run ;  in  other  situations  the  waters  of  the 
small  streams  are  collected  in  reservoirs,  and  used  for  irri- 
gating the  grounds. 

In  fertility  rice  much  exceeds  our  common  grains ;  in 
India  two  crops  a  year,  of  thirty  to  sixty  bushels  each,  are 
the  ordinary  produce  of  an  acre.  In  Lombardy,  three 
bushels  of  seed  are  sown  to  an  acre,  and  the  usual  return 
is  fifty  bushels. 

It  is  often  shipped  in  the  state  of  rough  rice,  that  is, 
with  the  hulls  on,  as  it  is  thus  more  easily  protected  from 
damage  in  transportation.  Its  preparation  is  completed  in 
mills  made  for  this  purpose,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe. 

Rice,  although  not  spoken  of  by  name  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  must  have  been  well  known  to  the  sacred  histo- 
rians ;  it  is  probable  that  its  cultivation  is  alluded  to  in 
Eccles.  xi,  1,  and  Isaiah  xxxii,  20. 

Uses. — Rice  forms  the  chief  food  of  a  greater  number 
11 


242  FIFTH   STEP.— LESSON  XIV". 

of  persons  than  any  other  substance ;  the  people  of  India^ 
China,  and  part  of  America,  live  chiefly  upon  it ;  with  a 
mixture  of  spices  termed  curry,  it  forms  almost  the  entire 
food  of  whole  races  of  men  in  India ;  and  it  is  estimated 
that  it  supports  upward  of  one  hundred  millions  of  people. 

As  a  diet  it  is  light,  wholesome,  and  readily  digested ; 
but,  from  consisting  almost  entirely  of  starch,  it  is  not  so 
nutritious  as  the  other  grains ;  it  is  used  with  more  advan- 
tage as  a  partial  article  of  food  than  alone ;  in  the  latter 
case  the  quantity  necessarily  eaten  is  very  large. 

In  India  a  species  of  strong  spirit  termed  arrack  is  dis- 
tilled from  fermented  rice,  and  the  straw  is  also  used  for 
making  plait  for  bonnets.  Large  quantities  of  rice  arh  used 
in  England  in  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

LESSON  XIV. 

INDIAN   CORN    OR   MAIZE. 

CuUivatiofij  dbc. — The  native  place  of  maize  is  undoubt* 
edly  America,  where  it  was  found  growing  both  wild  and 
cultivated  by  the  Spanish  discoverers  of  the  New  World. 
*In  appearance  the  Indian  corn-  difiers  much  from  other 
grains;  the  stalk  is  strong,  jointed,  and  reedy,  growing 
from  seven  to  ten  feet  in  height,  and  covered  with  broad 
alternate  leaves ;  the  top  of  the  stem  bears  a  bunch  of 
barren  flowers,  termed  the  tassel;  and  lower  down  are  the 
ears,  generally  about  three  in  number,  each  enclosed  in  a 
sheath  formed  of  several  thin  leaves  ;  the  ears  consist  of  a 
pithy,  cylindrical  stem,  called  the  cob,  on  which  are  closely 
arranged  the  rows  of  seeds ;  from  each  seed  proceeds  a 


INDIAN   CORN    OK   MAIZE.  .  243 

ong  silky  filament,  which  issues  from  the  sheath  at  the  top 
of  the  ear ;  after  a  time  both  the  tassel  of  barren  flowers, 
which  forms  a  fertilizing  powder  necessary  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  grain,  and  the  silken  filaments  which  receive  it 
as  it  falls,  dry  up  and  drop  oflf. 

The  color  of  Indian  corn  varies  from  a  rich  golden  yel- 
low, or  even  white,  to  a  deep  red  chocolate  color. 

The  cultivation  of  maize  is  very  simple.  The  grains  are 
planted  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart,  care  being  taken 
that  the  season  is  so  far  advanced  that  the  young  plants 
shall  not  be  destroyed  by  the  frost.  The  return  varies 
greatly,  according  to  the  quantity  of  manure  used,  and  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  but  it  is  always  very  great,  in  some 
instances  even  several  hundred  fold. 

Uses. — Indian  corn  forms  the  staple  article  of  food  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  among  all  classes  of 
persons  in  Mexico  ;  in  Africa,  where  it_^  has  been  intro- 
duced and  is  largely  cultivated,  it  is  said  to  be  as  much 
used  as  rice. 

In  those  warm  countries  where  it  grows  to  perfection, 
it  is  the  most  profitable  grain  that  can  be  cultivated,  its 
produce  being  so  much  greater  than  that  of  any*other 
grain ;  it  forms,  in  consequence,  a  cheap,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  exceedingly  wholesome  article  of  diet.  It  contains  a 
larger  proportion  of  fat  or  oil  than  any  other  grain,  and 
is,  therefore,  possessed  of  remarkable  fattening  properties. 

From  consisting  in  great  part  of  starch,  Indian  corn 
flour  is  not  well  adapted  for  making  bread,  unless  mixed 
with  wheat  flour ;  it  is  most  frequently  used  in  the  tbrm  of 
thick  porridge,  puddings,  and  cakes. 


244  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  XV. 

Com  is  used  extensively  in  the  United  States  in  the 
manufacture  of  starch.  The  largest  manufactories  are  at 
Oswego,  K.  Y.,  and  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island.  At  the  for- 
mer place  more  than  200,000  bushels  of  corn  are  made  into 
starch  annually,  which  is  used  both  in  cooking  and  by  the 
laundress 

LESSON  XV. 

WHEAT. 

Cultivation^  <&c. — ^The  native  country  of  wheat  is  not 
known  with  any  degree  of  certainty  ;  it  has  in -fact  been 
so  changed  by  cultivation  that  it  is  unknown  in  its  natural 
state ;  in  Europe,  where  it  has  been  long  cultivated,  many 
varieties  exist,  the  most  important  being  the  spring  or 
summer,  and  the  winter  or  lammas  wheat.  Spring  wheat, 
so  termed  from  its  being  sown  at  that  season,  has  a  more 
slender  head  than  the  winter  kind;  it  is  also  awned  or 
bearded ;  the  grain  itself  is  smaller,  and  the  whole  plant 
more  delicate  and  less  productive ;  it  is,  therefore,  less 
cultivated. 

Winter  wheat  is  a  vigorous und  hardy  plant.  The  ear 
is  destitute  of  any  awn  or  beard.  Two  distinct  kinds  of  it 
exist,  which  are  distinguished  by  the  names  red  and  white 
wheat.  The  latter  is  more  delicate  in  its  growth,  and  is 
better  suited  to  lighter  lands  than  the  red.  It  is  preferred 
for  producing  fine  flour,  and  consequently  sells  at  higher 
rates.  The  red  wheat,  on  the  contrary,  is  hardy,  and  bet- 
ter adapted  to  the  cold,  strong  clay  soils.  Winter  wheat 
is  sown  in  the  autumn,  usually  in  September  or  October, 


WHEAT.  245 

the  young  plants  standing  during  the  winter,  and  ripening 
their  seeds  the  following  autumn. 

The  sowing  is  either  broadcast  by  iiand,  or  performed 
with  the  drill  or  sowing  machine ;  the  latter  causes  a  much 
more  advantageous  arrangement  of  the  seed  in  furrows. 
Wheat  tillers  freely ;  that  is,  each  seed  produces  several 
stalks,  the  usual  number  being  about  five  or  six. 

The  produce  of  wheat  is,  on  the  average,  about  twenty- 
six  bushels  an  acre  ;  but  in  districts  where  manure  is  abun- 
dant and  agriculture  carried  to  a  high  state  of  perfection, 
much  larger  quantities  are  obtained ;  forty  bushels  to  the 
acre  are  not  unfrequent.  From  the  United  States  and 
Canada  large  quantities  of  flour  are  annually  exported  to 
Europe. 

Wheat  is  subject  to  a  disease  called  smut,  which  may 
be  described  as  a  sort  of  black  mildew,  affecting  the  ripen- 
ing grain.  A  few  diseased  grains  wdll  contaminate  a  large 
quantity  of  seed,  and  the  plants  produced  from  such  seed 
will  be  affected  ;  fortunately  this  disease  may  be  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed,  even  when  largely  present  in  seed  wheat, 
by  steeping  it  in  various  solutions,  as,  for  example,  strong 
brine,  or,  what  is  still  more  effectual,  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  or  blue  vitriol ;  or  a  weak  solution  of  arsenic. 

Uses. — Wheat  furnishes,  when  ground,  one  of  the  most 
nutritious  and  valuable  of  all  kinds  of  flour ;  in  temperate 
countries,  where  the  poverty  of  the  inhabitants  does  not 
preclude  its  use,  it  forms  the  chief  article  of  food.  From 
the  tough  character  of  the  dough  (obtained  by  mixing 
wheat  flour  with  water)  it  forms  a  more  spongy,  and, 
therefore,  lighter  kind  of  bread  than  any  other  flour. 


246  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  XVI. 


LESSON  XVL 

PULSE. 

The  term  pulse  is  applied  to  the  seeds  of  plants  resem- 
bling more  or  less  in  their  structure  the  common  pea; 
they  are  characterized  by  highly  developed  and  ornamental 
flowers,  the  corolla  consisting  of  petals  which  are  irregular 
in  form,  and  which,  in  some  species,  as  the  sweet  pea,  so 
much  resemble  a.  butterfly,  that  they  have  been  termed 
butterfly-shaped,  or  papilionaceous,  a  term  which  is  applied 
to  the  flowers  of  the  whole  group. 

The  ripened  seed  vessel  is  also  very  peculiar  in  these 
plants.  It  consists  of  two  halves,  or  valves,  usually  convex 
externally  and  concave  internally;  these  separate  when 
ripe,  and  disclose  a  row  of  seeds  attached  to  each  valve. 
Such  seed  vessels  are  popularly  termed  pods,  and  are 
known  to  botanists  as  legumes ;  hence  the  plants  bearing 
them  are  frequently  termed  leguminous  plants.  In  this 
country  peas  and  beans  form  the  most  frequently  used 
leguminous  seeds. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  all  leguminous  seeds  are 
not  wholesome  ;  those  of  the  Laburnum  tree,  for  example, 
often  give  rise  to  serious  illness  when  eaten  by  children. 

LESSON  XVTL 

BEANS. 

Natural  History. — Beans  are  the  produce  of  a  plant 
which  originally  came  from  the  East,  but  which  is  now  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  all  the  temperate  parts  of  the  world. 


-       *  BEAlfS.  247 

The  plant  is  an  annual,  from  two  to  four  feet  in  height ; 
the  leaves  are  divided  into  leaflets  ;  and  the  flowers,  which 
are  of  that  kind  termed  butterfly-shaped,  are  white,  with  a 
black  spot  on  the  centre  of  each  wing,  and  exceedingly 
fragrant ;  each  flower  is  succeeded  by  a  broad  thick  pod, 
smooth  externally  and  woolly  internally,  containing  several 
seeds. 

Beans  require  a  heavy  clay  soil,  and  are  planted  in  hills 
or  sown  in  drills,  either  with  a  hoe  or  with  a  drilling  ma- 
chine. The  crops  are  ready  to  be  gathered  in  the  autumn. 
The  formation  and  growth  of  a  bean  may  be  readily  exam- 
ined if  it  is  soaked  in  water  for  a  few  hours.  It  will  be 
found  to  consist  of  a  thick  outer  skin  or  covering,  inclosing 
two  parts,  joined  together  by  a  small  curved,  doubly  point- 
ed portion ;  the  two  halves  are  the  seed  lobes,  or  leaves ; 
these  contain  the  nourishment  for  the  young  plant,  and, 
rising  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  form  its  first 
leaves ;  the  connecting  parts  consist  of  the  young  stem 
and  root ;  the  uses  of  the  diiferent  parts  may  be  readily 
ascertained  by  moistening  a  few  beans  and  examining  them 
from  day  to  day. 

Uses. — Beans  constitute  a  very  hearty  food,  and  the 
better  sort  are  much  used  for  the  table.  They  are  exten- 
sively used  for  rations  in  the  army,  and  as  ship  stores. 
In  England  they  are  employed  as  food  for  hard-working 
horses,  for  which  purpose  they  are  usually  crushed  and 
mixed  with  cut  hay,  straw,  bran,  oats,  or  other  food  ;  they 
are  also  used  in  fattening  pigs,  but  are  regarded  as  making 
the  flesh  hard  and  tough;  bean  meal  is  also  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  flour  of  new  wheat  for  making  bread. 


248  PIFTH   STEF. ^LESSON  XVIIL 


LESSON  xvni. 

PEAS. 

Natural  History. — The  plant  yielding  the  common  pea 
is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  but  it  is  now  cultivated 
in  all  temperate  climates.  It  is  a  climber,  with  compound 
divided  leaves,  the  main  stalks  of  which  proceed  beyond 
the  last  pair  of  leaflets,  and  form  the  spirally  twisted  ten- 
drils, by  means  of  w^iich  the  plant  clings  for  support  to 
other  objects.  Few  circumstances  show  more  evidently 
the  design  and  wisdom  of  the  Creator  than  the  numberless 
instances  of  compensation.  Animals,  for  instance,  denied 
the  possession  of  some  one  sense,  are  compensated  for  it 
by  the  great  perfection  of  another,  which  answers  their 
wants  more  perfectly;  or,  as  in  the  present  case,  a  plant 
destitute  of  the  power  to  raise  its  leaves  and  flowers  from 
the  ground,  and  expose  them  to  the  genial  influences  of  the 
sun  and  air,  is  compensated  for  its  weakness  by  a  contri- 
vance which  enables  it  to  borrow  the  needful  support  from 
other  plants. 

The  flowers  of  the  pea  consistr  of  five  dissimilar  petals, 
forming  that  kind  of  flower  termed  butterfly-shaped,  or 
papilionaceous,  which  is  only  found  in  the  plants  of  the  pea 
tribe.  Each  flower  is  followed  by  a  pod,  which  divides 
when  ripe  into  two  parts,  both  of  which  bear  a  row  of 
seeds,  or  peas.  Each  pea  consists  of  an  outer  skin,  inclos- 
ing two  half  globular  seed  lobes,  connected  together  as  in 
the  bean,  the  description  of  which  may  be  referred  to  as 
applicable  to  the  various  parts  of  the  pea.     Cultivation  has 


FOREIGN   CUKEANTS.  243 

produced  many  varieties  of  this  vegetable ;  some  are  re- 
markable for  ripening  earlier  than  others ;  some  for  their 
peculiar  form,  size,  or  color.  The  common  field  pea  re- 
quires a  rich,  strong  soil,  but  the  garden  varieties  succeed 
better  on  dry,  light  lands. 

Uses. — The  garden  pea  is  highly  valued  for  the  table, 
when  gathered  in  its  green  state,  and  when  ripe,  dried,  and 
separated  from  the  skins,  we  obtain  from  them  the  well 
known  split  peas,  and  pea  flour,  so  much  used  for  making 
puddings  and  soup.  In  this  form  they  furnish  an  exceed- 
ingly nutritious  and  wholesome,  but,  to  some  persons,  not 
always  an  easily  digested  article  of  food. 

The  common  pea  is  largely  used  in  feeding  pigs ;  it  is 
grown  as  an  agricultural  crop,  being  sown  either  broadcast 
or  in  drills ;  in  either  case  it  spreads  over  the  ground,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  support  a  few  beans  are  sometimes 
sown  with  it.  The  dry  haulm  or  straw  of  the  pea  is  very 
valuable  as  food  for  horses  and  cattle. 


bruits  and  Seeds. 
LESSON       XIX. 

FOEEIGN   CUEEANTS. 

The  foreign,  or  dried  currants,  are  a  species  of  small 
raisins  or  grapes,  which  chiefly  grow  in  the  Grecian  Islands. 
They  were  formerly  very  abundant  in  the  Isthmus  of  Co- 
rinth, and  were  called  from  thence  Corinthians ;  this  term 
has  been  corrupted  into  currants,  probably  from  their  re- 
semblance to  the  English  fruit  of  that  name.     These  httle 


11 


250  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  XX. 

grapes  have  no  stones,  and  are  of  a  reddish  black  color ; 
they  are  extremely  delicious  when  fresh  gathered.  The 
harvest  commences  in  August,  and  as  soon  as  the  grapes 
are  gathered  they  are  spread  to  dry  on  a  floor,  prepared 
for  the  purpose  by  stamping  the  earth  quite  hard.  This 
floor  is  formed  with  a  gentle  rising  in  the  middle,  that  the 
rain,  in  case  any  should  fall,  may  flow  ofi'and  not  injure  the 
fruit.  When  sufficiently  dry,  the  currants  are  cleaned,  and 
laid  up  in  magazines,  where  they  are  so  closely  pressed  to- 
gether that,  when  a  supply  is  needed,  it  is  dug  out  with  an 
iron  instrument. 

They  are  packed  in  large  casks  for  exportation,  and 
trodden  down  by  the  natives. 

LESSON    XX. 

THE  COCOANUT. 

The  tree  which  produces  this  fruit  is  a  kind  of  palm, 
which  is  found  in  Brazil,  Ceylon,  and  throughout  the  East 
Indies ;  its  trunk  resembles  a  stately  column,  crowned  at 
the  summit  with  narrow  leaves,  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet  in 
length,  and  only  three  in  breadth  ^-  amidst  these,  hangs  the 
fruit.  The  external  rind  of  the  cocoanut  is  thin,  brown, 
smooth,  and  approaches  a  triangular  form.  This  covering  en- 
closes an  extremely  fibrous  substance,  of  considerable  thick- 
ness, which  immediately  surrounds  the  nut ;  the  latter  has 
a  thick  and  hard  shell,  with  three  holes  at  the  base,  each 
closed  by  a  black  membrane.  The  kernel,  which  is  about 
an  inch  in  thickness,  lines  the  shell  and  encloses  a  sweet, 
refreshing  liquid.     The  cocoanut  tree  affords  the  Indians 


RAISINS.  251 

food,  clothing,  and  means  of  shelter.  Before  the  kernel 
comes  to  maturity,  it  is  soft  and  pulpy,  may  be  scraped  out 
with  a  spoon,  and  supplies  the  natives  with  an  agreeable 
and  nutritious  food ;  when  pressed  in  a  mill,  it  yields  an 
oil.  By  making  incisions  in  the  flower-buds  at  the  top  of 
the  tree,  the  sap  flows  out,  and  is  esteemed  an  agreeable 
and  cooling  drink ;  it  is  sold  in  the  bazaars  under  the  name 
of  toddy.  If  allowed  to  stand  a  few  hours  it  ferments,  be- 
comes extremely  intoxicating,  and  is  called  palm  wine.  By 
soaking  the  fibrous  trunk  in  water  it  is  made  soft,  and  can 
be  manufactured  into  sail  cloth,  or  twisted  into  cordage  of 
any  description,  which  surpasses  in  durability  that  formed 
of  hemp.  The  woody  shells  are  very  hard,  and  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish ;  they  are  used  for  cups,  ladles,  and  other 
domestic  utensils.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  furnishes  either 
beams  or  rafters  for  habitations,  or  is  made  into  boats. 
The  leaves  platted  together  form  an  excellent  thatch;  they 
are  also  used  for  umbrellas,  mats,  and  various  other  useful 
articles. 

LESSON  XXI. 

EAISIXS. 

Natural  History. — Raisins,  or  dried  grapes,  are  the 
produce  of  the  vine — a  plant  which,  although  now  cultiva- 
ted in  all  the  warm  parts  of  the  globe,  was  originally  a  na- 
tive of  the  south  of  Asia,  from  whence  it  has  been  carried 
into  Europe,  Africa,  and  America.  The  early  cultivation 
of  this  plant  is  mentioned  in  Genesis  ix,  20  ;  and  the  large 
size  of  the  fruit  produced  in  the  genial  climate  of  Palestine 
is  as  remarkable  now  as  in  the  time  of  Moses. 


252  rrFTH  step. — lesson  xxn. 

In  this  country  the  fruit  of  the  vine  does  not  arrive  at 
a  sufficient  degree  of  perfection  to  make  wine,  without  the 
addition  of  sugar ;  nor  is  the  warmth  of  the  sun  powerful 
enough  to  dry  raisins ;  we  are,  therefore,  dependent  upon 
other  countries  for  our  supply. 

In  Valencia,  from  whence  our  great  supply  is  obtained, 
the  raisins  are  prepared  by  dipping  the  bunches  of  grapes 
into  a  hot  lye  made  of  wood  ashes,  oil,  and  lime ;  they  are 
then  exposed  on  frames  of  basket  work  for  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen days,  to  be  dried  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Muscatel  raisins  are  dried  on  the  vines  without  being 
dipped;  hence  the  different  appearance  and  flavor.  The 
effect  of  the  lye  is  to  soften  the  skin  of  the  fruit,  rendering 
it  less  tough,  but  it  somewhat  injures  the  flavor.  Valencia 
raisins  are  employed  in  pastry,  the  Muscatels  for  eating 
uncooked. 

Sultana  raisins  are  a  smaller  variety  from  Smyrna, 
without  seeds.  A  peculiar  mildew  has  attacked  almost 
all  the  varieties  of  the  grapevine  during  the  last  few 
years ;  the  quantity  of  raisins  has  been  lessened,  and  tho 
price  correspondingly  increased. 

LESSON  XXII. 

FIGS. 

Natural  History. — Figs  are  produced  on  a  small  trcf , 
originally  a  native  of  the  southwest  of  Asia,  but  now  culti- 
vated extensively  in  all  the  countries  of  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope; in  height  it  seldom  reaches  above  twenty  feet,  and 
bears  large,  deeply-lobed  leaves,  very  rough  on  the  upper 


FIGS.  253 

surface,  and  downy  beneath ;  it  is  not  furnished  with  any 
visible  flowers,  the  fruit  arising  from  the  stem  in  the  form 
of  small  pear-shaped  buds,  which  are  pierced  at  the  larger 
end  with  a  small  hole  ;  these  buds  enlarge  in  size  until 
they  become  ripe,  still  retaining  their  original  shape. 
Each  one  contains  a  cavity,  lined  with  numerous  small, 
scale-like  bodies;  these  are  the  flowers  enclosed  within  the 
fruit.  The  structure  cannot  be  seen  in  the  dried  fig,  the 
cavity  having  been  closed  up  by  pressure,  and  the  internal 
flowers  ripened  into  the  seeds.  In  its  unripe  state,  the  fig 
abounds  with  a  bitter  milky  juice — this,  as  it  ripens,  be- 
comes changed  into  sugar. 

One  ot  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  connected 
with  the  fig  is  the  fact  of  its  bearing  two,  or  even  three, 
crops  of  fruit  during  the  year ;  this  peculiarity,  and  the 
extreme  value  of  it  az  an  article  of  food,  are  alluded  to 
frequently  in  the  Old  Testament, — "I  found  Israel  hke 
grapes  in  the  wilderness ;  I  saw  your  fathers  as  the  first- 
ripe  in  the  fig  tree  at  her  first  time." — (Hosea  ix,  10). 

The  first  crop  is  formed  on  the  old  wood,  and  is  ripe  in 
May  and  June  ;  the  second  grows  on  wood  of  the  same 
year,  and  is  ripe  in  September;  and  in  very  warm  cli- 
mates, as  Greece  and  Egypt,  a  third  crop  is  produced, 
which  ripens  after  the  leaves  are  shed,  thus  supplying  the 
inhabitants  with  fresh  fruit  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

Those  intended  for  exportation  are  not  gathered  until 
perfectly  ripe ;  they  are  dried  on  frames,  which  are  placed 
in  the  sun  by  day,  and  under  cover  at  night ;  in  very  wet 
seasons  they  are  partially  dried  by  stoves  ;  whe»  quit^  dry, 


254  FIFTH   STEP. ^LESSON  XXIH. 

they  are  packed  in  boxes  and  baskets  for  exportation. 
Most  of  the  tigs  used  in  this  country  and  Great  Britain  are 
imported  from  Turkey. 

Uses. — Figs  are  a  very  nutritious  and  valuable  article 
of  diet ;  in  many  parts  of  the  East  they  form,  with  a  small 
portion  of  bread,  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
when  abundant  are  even  given  in  small  quantities  to  an- 
imals, as  corn  is  in  this  country.  The  sycamore  of  Scrip- 
ture is  a  larger  species  of  fig,  the  fruit  of  which  is  also 
occasionally  eaten. 

Vegetable  Secretions. 
LESSON    XXIII. 

CAMPHOE. 

Natural  History  and  Preparation. — Camphor  exists  in 
small  quantities  in  many  plants,  but  is  chiefly  obtained  from 
a  species  of  laurel  tree,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  which 
is  now  cultivated  in  most  of  the  warm  parts  of  the  w^orld ; 
the  great  supply  is  obtained  from  the  Island  of  Formosa, 
and  carried  in  Chinese  junks  to  Canton,  whence  foreign 
markets  are  supplied. 

Camphor  is  obtained  by  heating  in  a  still  the  leaves, 
branches,  and  wood  of  the  tree  cut  up  into  small  pieces ; 
being  volatile,  it  rises  in  vapor ;  this  is  collected  in  a  solid 
form  in  a  cold  part  of  the  apparatus.  The  camphor  of  com- 
merce is  in  a  dirty,  granular  state,  and  is  purified  by  a 
second  distillation.  The  art  of  refining  it  was  long  monop- 
lized  by  the  Venetians,  and  afterward  by  the  Dutch.  It  is 
now,  however,  practised  in  the  United  States. 


CAMPHOR.  255 

Properties* — Camphor  is  a  solid,  semi-transparent  sub« 
stance,  so  tough  that  it  cannot  be  powdered  without  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  spirit  or  oil ;  it  possesses  a 
strong  aromatic  and  very  peculiar  odor ;  it  is  very  sparing- 
ly soluble  in  water,  to  w^hich,  however,  it  imparts  its  pecu- 
liar odor  and  bitter  taste  ;  in  spirit  it  dissolves  readily,  the 
camphor  separating  in  the  solid  form  when  the  solution  is 
poured  into  water.  Camphor  is  also  soluble  in  oil.  In 
large  doses  it  acts  as  a  poison,  producing  convulsions,  stu- 
por, and  death. 

It  melts  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  at  the  same  time  pass- 
es off  rapidly  in  vapor ;  if  brought  into  actual  contact  with 
a  flame,  it  takes  fire  readily,  burning  with  a  large  flame  and 
much  smoke. 

Uses. — ^The  strong  odor  of  camphor  is  obnoxious  to 
insects  and  moths ;  it  is,  therefore,  employed  to  protect 
cabinets  of  natural  history  and  clothes ;  when  taken  as  a 
medicine,  it-s  first  effect  is  that  of  a  stimulant,  but  its  action 
afterward  becomes  depressing  ;  its  strong  odor  has  given 
rise  to  the  idea  that  it  is  capable  of  preventing  infection, 
and  it  is  frequently  carried  about  the  body  with  this  view  ; 
it  has  not,  however,  the  slightest  power  of  destroying  in- 
fection, and,  from  its  depressing  effects,  its  action  is  deci- 
dedly injurious. 

Dissolved  in  spirit,  it  forms  a  valuable  application  to 
unbroken  chilblains,  and  also  to  burns  or  scalds  when  the 
gkin  is  not  destroyed. 


256  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  XXIV. 

LESSON   XXIV. 

GUM  ARABIC. 

Natural  Sistory. — Gum  arable  is  the  produce  of  seve- 
ral kinds  of  acacia  trees,  natives  of  the  sandy  deserts  of 
Africa  and  the  East  Indies. 

In  the  hottest  seasons  of  the  year  the  gum  oozes  out 
from  the  bark  in  a  thick  mucilage,  which  hardens  on  expo- 
sure to  the  air,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  gum  produced 
by  the  plum  and  cherry  trees  of  this  climate,  but  to  a  much 
greater  extent. 

When  pure,  gum  arabic  is  transparent  and  colorless, 
but  the  commoner  kinds  are  generally  yellow.  It  has  a 
glassy  lustre,  is  perfectly  inodorous,  and  has  an  insipid 
taste.  It  dissolves  readily  in  water,  forming  a  thick  adhe- 
sive solution,  which  becomes  sour  after  having  been  made 
some  time. 

Uses. — Gum  in  the  form  of  mucilage  is  much  used  as  a 
cement  for  small  articles,  as  for  fastening  labels  to  glass, 
(fee. ;  it  is  also  employed  extensively  in  the  arts,  for  stiffen- 
ing crapes  and  other  fabrics,  and.in  the  manufacture  of  ink. 
Paper  which  has  been  gummed  on  one  side,  and  allowed  to 
become  dry,  is  readily  attached  to  any  object  by  moisten- 
ing with  the  tongue  or  otherwise;  in  this  manner  gum  is 
largely  employed  for  postage  stamps  and  envelopes,  a  por- 
tion of  sugar  being  usually  mixed  with  it,  to  enable  the 
cement  to  be  more  rapidly  softened  by  the  moisture  em- 
ployed. The  gum  usually  employed  for  this  and  other 
coarse  purposes  is  termed  British  gum,  or  Dextrine,  being 


INDIAN   EUBBEK.  257 

made  by  baking  starch  in  a  moderate  heat  until  it  assumes 
a  pale  brown  color,  and  becomes  soluble  in  cold  water, 

LESSOX   XXV. 

INDIAN   RUBBER,    OR    CAOUTCHOUC. 

Natural  History. — Indian  rubber  is  produced  by  seve- 
ral trees,  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  South  America 
and  the  East  Indies ;  it  is  obtained,  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son, by  making  deep  incisions  in  the  bark,  when  a  thick, 
creamy  juice,  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  flows  out,  capable 
of  being  mixed  with  water;  this  remains  unchanged  if  kept 
in  closely  corked  bottles,  but  dries  slowly  on  exposure  to 
the  air. 

In  South  America  the  natives  spread  the  juice,  as  it  is 
obtained  from  the  tree,  on  moulds  of  clay,  applying  one 
layer  as  soon  as  that  previously  put  on  is  dry  ;  the  drying 
is  hastened  by  placing  the  moulds  over  a  wood  fire,  the 
smoke  of  which  colors  the  Indian  rubber.  These  moulds 
are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  shoe,  and  sometimes  of  a 
bottle. 

When  a  sufficient  number  of  coats  have  been  applied, 
so  as  to  produce  the  desired  thickness,  the  clay  moulds  are 
broken  and  the  pieces  withdrawn,  leaving  the  Indian  rub- 
ber in  the  form  of  the  mould  ;  from  the  East  Indies  it  is 
usually  imported  in  the  form  of  balls  or  irregular  pieces. 

Properties. — Indian  rubber  is  a  soft,  pliable,  and  highly 
elastic  substance,  tough,  and  difficult  to  be  cut ;  its  elas- 
ticity varies,  being  much  lessened  by  cold  and  increased  by 
a  moderate   heat;   when   suddenly  stretched  it  becomes 


258  MFTH   STEP. — LESSON   XXV. 

warm — an  experiment  readily  tried  by  extending  a  thin 
thong  suddenly  between  the  lips ;  if  stretched,  and 
placed  in  cold  water  for  some  time,  it  loses  its  contrac- 
tile power,  which,  however,  it  regains  immediately  on 
being  warmed. 

Indian  rubber  is  insoluble  in  cold  or  hot  water,  but  is 
softened  by  long  boiling,  and  becomes  somewhat  adhesive  ; 
it  is  also  insoluble  in  spirits  or  weak  acids,  but  dissolves 
readily,  with  the  aid  of  heat,  in  pure  ether,  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, and  coal  naphtha,  remaining  unchanged  when  the 
liquids  evaporate  ;  it  is  partly  dissolved  by  oil,  becoming 
clammy  and  glutinous. 

Freshly  cut,  clean  surfaces  of  Indian  rubber,  readily 
adhere,  if  pressed  together,  or  they  may  be  united  by  using 
that  which  has  been  dissolved  in  naphtha  or  turpentine ; 
heated  to  a  degree  rather  higher  than  boiling  water,  it 
melts,  but  it  is  altered  in  its  properties,  and  does  not  be- 
come solid  on  cooling ;  if  brought  into  contact  with  a 
flame,  it  immediately  takes  fire,  burning  with  a  white 
flame,  and  giving  out  a  dense  smoke  and  a  very  peculiar 
odor.  In  Guiana,  where  the  trees  abound,  it  is  frequently 
used  for  torches. 

Preparation. — Indian  rubber  is  formed  into  blocks  by 
being  placed  in  an  iron  cylinder,  lined  with  spikes,  through 
which  passes  an  iron  shaft,  also  armed  with  spikes,  and 
made  to  turn  round  rapidly ;  by  this  operation  the  Indian 
rubber  is  torn  into  small  pieces,  which,  when  firmly  pressed 
together,  unite  into  a  uniform  solid  block,  capable  of  being 
cut  up  into  thin  sheets  or  threads ;  this  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  wet  knives,  moved  by  machinery ;    threads  of 


INDIAN    RUBBER.  259 

such  a  degree  of  fineness  are  produced,  that  5,000  yards 
weigh  only  one  pound. 

Uses. — The  elasticity,  flexibility,  and  impervious  nature 
of  this  substance  render  it  of  great  use  in  the  arts ;  the 
natives  of  the  countries  where  it  is  produced  make  water- 
proof articles  by  spreading  the  fresh  juice  on  cloth  and 
other  substances ;  in  this  country  it  is  so  used  by  being 
dissolved  in  naphtha  or  turpentine,  and  then  spread  upon 
cloth,  or  applied  between  two  thin  fabrics,  which  are 
pressed  together  by  rollers.  The  dissolved  Indian  rubber 
is  also  used  as  a  cement  in  binding  books,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

When  dissolved  with  shellac  it  forms  a  valuable  ce- 
ment, termed  marine  glue,  used  in  ship-building. 

Advantage  is  taken  of  the  property  of  Indian  rubber  of 
becoming  inelastic  when  cold,  in  weaving  elastic  band.oges, 
&c.  The  threads  employed  for  this  purpose  are  stretched 
to  seven  or  eight  times  their  original  length,  and  wound  on 
rollers ;  they  are  then  kept  extended  in  the  cold  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  by  which  time  they  entirely  lose  their  elas- 
ticity; in  this  state  they  are  woven  readily,  and  when 
passed  over  a  hot  roller  the  Indian  rubber  resumes  its 
elasticity ;  these  fabrics  are  employed  for  many  purposes, 
as  glove  bands,  brace  ends,  surgical  bandages,  &c.,  &c. 

The  use  of  Indian  rubber  in  removing  black  lead  pen- 
cil marks  from  paper  is  well  known  ;  its  name  is  derived 
from  its  being  so  employed.  It  is  also  used,  either  alone 
or  in  combination,  in  the  manufacture  of  boots,  shoes, 
travelling  bags,  life  preservers,  &c. 

Vulcanized  Indian  rubber  is  usually  prepared  by  adding 


260  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XXVI. 

a  small  quantity  of  sulphur  to  the  rubber  as  it  is  prepared 
in  the  mill ;  .when  the  article  required  is  finished,  it  is  heat- 
ed ;  the  sulphur  and  heat  effect  a  very  important  change ; 
the  Indian  rubber  becomes  much  more  elastic  than  before, 
and  possesses  the  great  advantage  of  not  being  stiffened  by 
cold,  nor  softened  by  the  heat  of  boiling  water ;  it  loses 
also  its  adhesiveness  to  so  great  a  degree  that  it  cannot  be 
made  to  unite,  and  the  waste  pieces  are  comparatively 
valueless.  The  red  vulcanized  Indian  rubber  is  prepared 
in  a  similar  manner,  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  antimony 
being  employed.  The  permanently  flexible  and  elastic 
character  of  vulcanized  Indian  rubber  has  led  to  its  ex- 
tensive use  for  gas  tubes,  elastic  bands,  springs,  toys,  &c., 
&c.,  &G.  By  the  addition  of  magnesia  to  vulcanized  rub- 
ber it  acquires  that  degree  of  hardness  which  adapts  it  to 
the  manufacture  of  knife  handles,  combs,  canes,  buttons, 
fancy  boxes,  and  many  other  articles. 

LESSON     XXVI. 

GUTTA  PERCHA. 

N'atural  History  and  Preparation. — Gutta  percha  is 
the  product  of  a  tall  tree,  a  native  of  the  Malayan  Penin- 
sula, and  the  adjacent  islands,  which,  when  wounded,  ex- 
udes a  milky  juice,  hardening  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It 
was  formerly  procured  by  the  natives  in  a  most  wasteful 
mode,  by  cutting  down  the  trees  and  collecting  Jhe  thick- 
ened sap  from  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  ;  but  taj}- 
ping  has  lately  been  introduced.  This  sap,  as  it  hardens,  is 
kneaded  into  shapeless  masses ;  these,  when  imported  into 


GUTTA   PERCH  A.  261 

this  country,  are  prepared  for  use  by  being  cut  into 
shreds,  cleaned  by  washing,  and  caused  to  unite  by 
V^^armth  and  j^ressure.  Each  tree  yields  from  twenty  to 
thirty  pounds. 

Properties. — In  its  prepared  state,  gutta  percha  is  a 
tough,  strong,  flexible  substance,  somewhat  resembling 
leather ;  it  is  lighter  than  water,  of  a  brown  color,  taste- 
less, and  having  a  peculiar  odor;  it  is  quite  insoluble  in 
water,  spirit,  and  weak  acids,  but  is  dissolved  by  ether, 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  coal  naphtha.  It  is  softened  by 
a  degree  of  warmth  much  less  than  that  of  boiling  water, 
but  greater  than  that  of  the  human  body ;  it  then  becomes 
a  plastic  mass,  capable  of  being  readily  moulded  into  any 
required  shape ;  it  is  inflammable,  burning  with  a  white 
flame  and  much  smoke;  it  is  quite  impervious  to  water, 
even  in  thin  layers,  and  is  not  a  conductor  of  heat  or 
electricity. 

Uses. — The  uses  to  which  this  substance  has  been  ap- 
plied depend  chiefly  on  its  toughness,  insolubility,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  may  be  made  to  assume  any  form.  By 
pressure  in  moulds  it  is  made  into  trays,  cups,  bottles,  pic- 
ture frames,  inkstands,  &c.,  &c. ;  flattened  between  rollers, 
it  forms  bands,  traces,  shoe  soles,  thin  waterproof  sheeting, 
<fec. ;  and  it  is  also  formed  into  pipes  for  conveying  water, 
which,  from  their  toughness,  resist  great  pressure ;  and  for 
speaking  tubes,  for  which  purpose  it  is  peculiarly  adapted, 
as  it  possesses  in  this  form  an  extraordinary  power  of  con- 
ducting sound.  From  its  extreme  strength  it  is  also  well 
fitted  for  forming  substances  submitted  to  rough  usage ; 
it  possesses,  however,  the  disadvantage  of  being  readily 


262  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XX VH. 

altered  in  shape  by  a  degree  of  heat  less  than  that  of  boil- 
ing water. 

One  of  its  most  useful  applications  depends  upon  its  be- 
ing a  non-conductor  of  electricity  ;  hence  it  is  employed  to 
cover  the  wires  of  the  submarine  electric  telegraph. 

LESSON   XXVII. 

OILS. 

Fixed  or  greasy  oils  arc  abundantly  formed  by  various 
vegetables,  and  are  of  extreme  value  to  man,  as  food,  for 
lighting,  soap  and  candle  making,  and  many  other  pur- 
poses. 

Oils  are  seldom,  if  ever,  stored  up  in  the  leaves  or 
bark,  but  are  usually  found  in  the  seed-vessel  or  seeds; 
in  the  latter,  oils  answer  the  twofold  purpose  of  nourish- 
ing the  young  plant  during  its  early  growth,  and  of 
affording  a  supply  of  food  to  man  and  animals. 

The  quantity  of  oil  in  various  seeds  is  very  great.  The 
kernel  of  the  hazel  nut  contains  60  per  cent. ;  walnut  50  ; 
almond,  46  ;  poppy  seed,  50  ;  rape,  39  ;  hemp,  25  ;  flax, 
22.  Many  of  these  seeds  wheri~dry,  as  the  almond,  take 
fire  and  burn  readily  when  placed  in  the  flame  of  a  candle. 

The  most  commonly  used  vegetable  oils  are  olive,  lin« 
seed,  palm,  and  castor  oils. 

Olive  Oil.  Natural  History. — The  olive  is  a  small 
evergreen  tree,  common  in  the  south  of  Europe,  Barbary, 
and  the  Levant ;  it  has  lance-shaped  grayish-green  leaves, 
and  white  flowers ;  the  latter  are  followed  by  a  fruit  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  damson,  of  a  purple  color,  with  a  nau- 


OILS.  263 

seous,  bitter,  oily  flesh,  which  encloses  a  sharp-pointed 
stone. 

The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  by  crushing  it  un- 
der  rollers  into  a  paste,  which  is  then  enclosed  in  bags  and 
subjected  to  the  action  of  a  screw  press.  That  which  flows 
first  is  regarded  as  the  best ;  after  that  has  been  removed, 
hot  water  is  added  to  the  mass,  and  an  additional  quantity 
obtained. 

Properties  and  Uses. — Olive  oil  is  an  insipid,  inodorous, 
pale,  yellow,  oily  liquid,  not  liable  to  turn  rancid,  and  very 
inflammable ;  at  a  temperature  several  degrees  above  the 
freezing  point  of  water  it  becomes  solid. 

In  the  south  of  Europe  and  Syria,  of  which  countries 
the  olive  is  a  native,  the  oil  has  been  in  use  from  the  ear- 
liest periods  of  which  we  have  any  record,  both  for  food 
(1  Kings,  xvii,  12)  and  burning  in  lamps  (Exod.  xxvii,  20) ; 
at  the  present  time  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  cream  and 
butter  of  Spain  and  Italy,  and  so  much  is  it  valued,  that 
the  tree  is  chosen  as  the  emblem  of  peace  and  plenty. 

In  our  own  country  olive  oil  is  used  in  the  preparation 
of  food,  though  to  a  much  more  limited  extent  than  in 
Europe ;  the  common  kinds  are  largely  employed  in  the 
woollen  manufacture,  and  some  kinds  of  soap. 

Linseed  Oil.  Natural  History. — The  description  of 
the  plant  yielding  flax  and  linseed  will  be  found  under 
the  head  of  Textile  Fabrics ;  the  seeds,  when  separated, 
are  crushed  and  pressed  in  mills,  when  they  yield  nearly 
one  fourth  of  their  weight  of  oil ;  this,  of  all  vegetable  oils, 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  useful.  It  possesses  the 
property  of  drying  when  exnosed   in   thin  layers  to  the 


264  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON   XXVII. 

action  of  the  air ;  hence  its  use  in  the  preparation  of 
paint  and  varnish,  for  which  purpose  the  employment  of  a 
fatty,  non-drying  oil,  as  that  of  the  olive,  would  not  an- 
sv\'er.  It  is  also  employed  in  large  quantities  for  making 
putty,  and  for  various  purposes  in  the  arts ;  it  is  not  un- 
wholesome, but  it  has  a  nauseous  and  unpleasant  taste, 
which  renders  it  unfit  for  the  food  of  man. 

The  crushed  mass  that  remains  after  the  extraction  of 
the  oil  is  termed  oilcake,  and  is  much  used  for  fattenino^ 
cattle.  The  skins  of  the  seeds  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
mucilaginous  or  gummy  matter;  this  is  dissolved  when 
boiling  Avater  is  poured  upon  the  seeds,  and  forms  the 
solution  termed  linseed  tea;  ground  into  powder  the 
seeds  furnish  linseed  meal,  a  substance  used  medicinally 
for  poultices,  &c. 

The  manufacture  of  this  oil  has  become  a  very  impor- 
tant branch  of  industry  in  this  country ;  the  seed  for  this 
purpose  being  largely  imported  from  the  British  East 
Indies. 

Palm  Oil. — This  substance,  which  is  in  a  solid  form  in 
temperate  climates,  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  a  species 
of  palm,  found  upon  the  westj^rn  coast  of  Africa,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  some  parts  of  South  America.  It  is  ex- 
ported mostly  to  England,  where  it  is  bleached  and  manu- 
factured into  candles  and  fine  soaps. 

Castor  Oil. — Is  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  the  castor 
oil  plant,  and  is  chiefly  used  medicinally.  It  is  also  much 
used  for  burning  in  France,  Italy,  and  some  other 
eountries. 

Volatile  oils  are  very  distinct  in  their  character  from 


OILS.  265 

those  that  are  fixed  and  greasy.  They  are  usually  found 
in  the  flowers,  but  also  in  the  other  parts  of  certain  vege- 
tables. By  boiling  the  substances  containing  them  with 
water,  the  oil  is  volatilized,  and,  passing  over  with  the 
steam,  may  be  collected  and  preserved  for  use.  By  this 
process  of  distillation,  most  of  the  volatile  oils  are  col- 
lected ;  some,  however,  as  the  volatile  oil  of  lemon  peel, 
are  obtained  by  pressure.  Many  volatile  oils  are  used  as 
flavoring  ingredients,  as  the  oil  of  lemon  ;  or  as  perfumes, 
as  those  of  bergamot,  lavender,  rosemary,  &c.,  &c.  The 
most  valuable  volatile  oil  is  that  obtained  from  turpentine. 
The  substance  known  as  turpentine  is  a  soft  solid,  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  resin  and  volatile  oil,  obtained  by 
wounding  different  trees  of  the  fir  tribe,  when  it  exudes 
and  is  collected. 

The  oil,  or  spirits  of  turpentine,  is  obtained  by  distil- 
ling it  in  an  ordinary  copper  still,  when  the  oil  distils  over, 
and  the  resin  remains  behind.  The  distilled  fluid  is  color- 
less, very  limpid,  and  possesses  a  peculiar  and  powerful 
smell.  It  is  much  lighter  than  water,  its  specific  gravity 
being  about  875.  From  its  volatile  character,  it  is  largely 
employed  in  common  paint,  as  it  flies  ofl*  in  vapor  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  leaving  the  drying  linseed  oil  and 
white  lead,  of  which  the  substance  of  the  paint  is  chiefly 
composed. 

It  is  very  inflammable,  burning  with  a  large  flame  and 
much  smoke  ;  purified  by  a  second  distillation,  it  is  known 
as  camphene,  and  was  formerly  much  used  in  lamps  of  a 
jjeculiar  construction,  but  latterly  its  use  has  been  entirely 
superseded  by  the  mineral  oil  known  as  kerosene. 
12 


266  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   XXVIII. 

LESSON    XXVIII. 

SUGAR. 

Natural  History. — Sugar  is  the  produce  of  a  plaiit 
called  the  sugar  cane,  which  has  been  cultivated  from  very 
remote  times  by  the  Chinese.  It  is  now  extensively  grown 
in  both  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Brazil,  the  United 
States,  &c.  The  root  of  the  sugar  cane  is  jointed,  solid, 
and  perennial ;  sending  up  several  smooth,  jointed,  un- 
branched  stems,  whicb  rise  to  a  height  of  from  six  to 
twelve  feet,  and  which  are  filled  with  a  pithy  substance, 
containing  a  very  sweet  juice.  The  leaves,  which  are 
about  three  inches  broad,  and  from  three  to  four  feet  in 
length,  spring  singly  from  the  joints,  sheathing  or  wrap- 
ping round  the  stem  for  some  distance,  like  the  leaves  of 
grasses.  The  top  of  the  stem  is  furnished  with  a  loose 
bundle  of  small  downy  flowers,  of  a  pale  lilac  color,  giving 
to  the  plant  an  exceedingly  elegant  appearance ;  these 
blossoms  are,  however,  rarely  seen  in  the  West  Indies,  as 
the  canes  are  cut  down  before  the  time  of  flowering. 

The  sugar  cane  is  cultivatt3ii  by  planting  the  top  joints 
when  the  cane  is  cut,  each  cutting  producing  several  stems. 
The  planting  does  not  require  to  be  renewed  annually,  as 
fresh  canes  spring  from  the  roots  for  some  years  in  suc- 
cession. During  growth,  the  canes  are  sometimes  de- 
stroyed by  numerous  small  insects  that  live  on  the  juice; 
they  are  also  subject  to  the  depredations  of  monkeys, 
i'ats,  <&c. 

When  the  canes  are  ripe,  which  is  usually  in  March, 


SUGAR.  267 

they  are  cut,  divided  into  convenient  lengths,  and  carried 
to  the  mill,  where  they  are  crushed,  and  the  juice  ex- 
pressed by  passing  them  between  large  iron  rollers.  The 
juice  is  immediately  boiled,  with  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  lime,  to  promote  the  separation  of  the  impuri- 
ties, which  rise  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a  scum,  and 
are  skimmed  off.  The  clear  liquor  is  then  rapidly  boiled, 
until  it  becomes  sufficiently  thick  to  form  solid  grains  on 
cooling.  The  sugar  in  this  state  is  termed  raw  or  moist 
sugar,  and  is  packed  in  casks  for  exportation  ;  these  casks 
are  pierced  with  holes,  through  which  the  molasses,  or  un- 
crystallize'd  portions  of  the  sugar  drain  away. 

It  is  estimated  that  about  one  hundred  canes  yield  five 
gallons  of  the  best  juice,  and  that  these  produce  about  five 
pounds  of  sugar.  The  fuel  generally  used  in  boiling  is 
the  crushed  cane  itself,  previously  dried  by  exposure  to 
the  sun. 

Sugar  is  also  obtained  from  other  plants  :  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  United  States  it  is  obtained  from  the  sweet 
maple,  and  in  France  large  quantities  are  prepared  from 
b^et  root. 

Raw  sugar  is  converted  into  loaf  or  lump  sugar  by  a 
process  termed  refining.  The  raw  sugar  is  dissolved  in 
warm  water,  with  the  addition  of  a  httle  lime,  and  the 
liquor  filtered  through  thick  folds  of  cloth  ;  by  this  means 
it  is  freed  from  many  impurities,  and  rendered  transparent, 
although  it  remains  colored.  The  next  stage  is  the  discol- 
oration of  the  syrup,  which  is  effected  by  filtering  it 
through  layers  of  animal  charcoal,  or  bone  black,  formed 
by  heating  bones  to  redness,  in  close  iron  vessels.     The 


268  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XXVIII. 

colorless  syrup  is  pumped  into  covered  boilers,  or,  as  they 
are  called,  vacuum  pans ;  here  it  is  heated  by  steam  pipes, 
and  the  air  and  vapor  rising  from  it  are  pumped  away  by 
an  air  pump,  the  effect  of  which  is,  that  the  syrup  boils  at 
a  very  moderate  heat,  and  is  not  discolored  by  burning 
When  sufficiently  concentrated  by  heat,  the  syrup  is  placed 
in  moulds,  where  it  forms,  on  cooling,  a  solid  mass  of  gran- 
ular sugar ;  this  is  purified  by  pouring  a  small  quantity  of 
clear  syrup  on  the  top,  which,  flowing  through,  carries  with 
it  any  portions  of  sugar  that  have  not  crystallized.  The 
substance  known  as  treacle  consists  of  the  uncrystallizable 
portions  of  sugar  which  are  left  in  the  diffvirenf*  processes 
of  manufacture. 

Loaf  sugar  is  a  granular  white  solid,  formed  of  a  num- 
ber of  small,  hard,  transparent  crystals,  slightly  adhering 
together.  When  pure,  it  is  free  from  smell,  and  has  a 
sweet  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  forming  a  syrup  of 
greater  or  less  degree  of  thickness,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  sugar  dissolved.  Weak  solutions  of  sugar,  espe- 
cially if  any  other  vegetable  substances  are  present,  are 
apt  to  ferment,  when  the  sugar  is  converted  into  spirit. 
The  spirit  of  fermented  liquors,  it  may  be  observed,  in  all 
cases,  depends  on  the  quantity  of  sugar  contained  in  the 
substances  of  which  they  are  formed. 

Loaf  sugar  is  readily  melted  by  a  moderate  heat,  be- 
coming reddish  brown ;  if  the  heat  is  increased,  a  dark 
brown,  soluble,  slightly  bitter  substance  is  produced,  much 
used  for  coloring  soups,  spirits,  &c.,  under  the  name  of 
caramel,  or  browning.  Refined  sugar  furnishes  a  good 
example  of  a  phosphorescent  substance,  two  pieces  rubbed 


COFFEE.  269 

against  each  other  in  the  dark  giving  out  a  beaatifal  pale 
light. 

Uses. — Sugar  forms  an  exceedingly  wholesome  article 
of  food.  It  is  remarked  that  during  the  harvest  time  the 
negroes  engaged  in  the  work,  and  even  the  horses  and 
cattle  feeding  on  the  refuse  become  in  good  condition, 
although  their  labor  is  at  that  period  much  increased.  It 
is  the  basis  of  all  our  confectionery,  and  an  important  ele- 
ment in  many  table  delicacies.  It  is  also  much  used  in 
preserving  fruits,  meats  (particularly  hams),  and  fish. 

The  quantity  of  raw  sugar  imported  into  England  is 
above  9,000,000  cwt.  yearly  ;  about  300,000  cwt.  of  refined 
sugar  is  also  imported.  This  amount  shows  a  consumption 
of  upward  of  thirty  pounds  per  head  to  each  person  in 
Great  Britain  annually,  a  consumption  greater  than  that 
of  any  country  in  the  world,  except  the  United  States.  In 
France  the  annual  consumption  is  only  four  pounds  per 
head ;  in  Russia  and  Germany  still  less. 

LESSON  XXIX. 

'  COFFEE. 

Coffee  is  the  seed  of  a  plant  growing  principally  in 
Arabia  and  the  West  Indies;  it  reaches  the  height  of  16 
or  18  feet;  the  flower  resembles  jessamine,  and  the  leaves 
are  evergreen ;  the  fruit  when  ripe  is  like  the  cherry ;  it 
contains  two  cells,  and  each  cell  has  a  single  hemispherical 
seed.  "When  ripe,  it  is  either  gathered  by  the  hand,  or 
shaken  from  the  trees,  and  placed  on  mats  for  the  sun  to 
dry  the  pulpy  substance  which  surrounds  the  seed.     The 


270  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XXX. 

husk  is  broken  by  heavy  rollers,  and  afterward  removed 
by  winnowing.  In  order  to  prepare  the  coffee  for  a  bever- 
age, it  must  be  roasted  till  it  becomes  of  a  dark  brown 
color,  and  extremely  odorous ;  after  which  it  is  ground, 
and  either  infused  or  boiled  in  water.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  very  stimulating  property,  and  is  used  not  only  as 
a  beverage,  but  as  a  medicine.  Its  discovery  is  said  to 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  following  circumstance. 
Some  goats,  who  browsed  upon  this  plant,  were  observed 
by  the  goat  herd  to  be  exceedingly  wakeful,  and  often  to 
caper  about  in  the  night ;  the  prior  of  a  neighboring  mon- 
astery, wishing  to  keep  his  monks  awake  at  their  m^atins, 
tried  if  the  cofiee  would  produce  the  same  effect  upon 
them  as  it  was  observed  to  do  upon  the  goats ;  the  success 
of  his  experiment  led  to  the  appreciation  of  its  value. 

LESSON  XXX. 

TEA. 

Natural  History^  <&c. — Tea  is  the  produce  of  a  small 
evergreen  shrub,  a  native  of  China,  Japan,  and  some  parts 
of  India.  The  leaves  are  lancirshaped,  toothed  like  a  saw, 
or  serrated  at  the  edges,  of  a  bright  deep-green  color  when 
fresh,  their  length  varying  from  two  to  five  inches.  The 
flowers,  which  are  white,  with  numerous  yellow  stamens, 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  camellia  japonica — a  plant  to 
which  the  tea  shrub  itself  has  a  very  considerable  resem- 
blance. Each  flower  is  succeeded  by  dry  fruit,  containing 
three  seeds. 

The  first  crop  of  tea  is  not  collected  until  the  plants, 


TEA.  271 

which  are  raised  from  seeds,  are  three  years  old ;  after  this 
age  the  leaves  are  gathered  several  times  during  the 
course  of  the  year,  the  young  ones  alone  being  plucked  ; 
as  soon  as  collected  they  are  put  into  shallow  baskets, 
partly  dried  by  the  sun  and  air,  and  afterward  over  a  char- 
coal stove ;  during  the  process  they  are  rubbed  between 
the  hands,  so  as  to  roll  them  up,  and  are  constantly  stirred, 
to  prevent  scorching. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  tea  imported  into  this  country 
— black  and  green.  The  black  tea  is  prepared  by  placing 
the  leaves  in  a  heap  after  they  are  gathered,  which  pro- 
duces a  slight  degree  of  heat,  sufficient  to  darken  the 
leaves ;  whereas  the  green  tea  is  dried  and  rolled  imme- 
diately after  having  been  gathered.  The  inferior  kinds 
are  prepared  by  coloring  the  leaves  with  Prussian  blue. 
The  Chinese  tea-makers  employed  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  Assam  make  both  green  and  black  tea  indiscrimi- 
nately from  the  same  trees. 

The  transportation  of  tea  from  the  tea  districts  to  the 
shipping  ports,  is  much  of  it  performed  by  men,  who  carry 
the  chests,  slung  one  at  each  end  of  a  bamboo,  which  rests 
across  the  shoulder. 

The  consumption  of  tea  in  Great  Britain  is  about  65 
millions  of  pounds  annually,  being  about  two  pounds  for 
each  person ;  in  the  United  States  the  quantity  consumed 
is  at  the  rate  of  about  one  pound  for  each  person  an- 
nually; on  the  continent  of  Europe  coffee  is  employed 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  tea ;  and  in  the  German 
States  the  annual  consumption  is  only  half  an  ounce  per 
head  annually. 


272  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON   XXXI. 

Uses. — The  mode  in  which  tea  is  used  as  a  beverage 
requires  no  explanation.  Its  precise  action  on  the  system 
is  not  thoroughly  understood  ;  it  is  slightly  astringent,  and 
contains  a  volatile  oil,  which  has  a  peculiar  effect  on  the 
nervous  system,  occasioning,  when  taken  in  large  quanti- 
ties, watchfulness  and  sleeplessness;  on  the  other  hand, 
when  taken  in  moderation,  it  has  a  soothing  effect  on 
the  circulation ;  tea  also  contains  a  peculiar  substance, 
termed  theiriy  which  is  supposed  to  assist  considerably  in 
the  nutrition  of  the  system. 

LESSON  XXXI. 

HOPS. 

Natural  History. — The  plant  producing  hops  is  found 
wild  in  the  Eastern  States,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri,  and  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe.  It  is 
cultivated  extensively  in  New  England,  New  York,  and 
Ohio.  The  English  have  carried  its  cultivation  to  great 
perfection ;  in  the  county  of  Kent  alone  from  25,000  to 
30,000  acres  are  occupied  by  hop  plantations.  It  has  a 
perennial  root,  and  a  coarse,  harsh,  twining,  annual  stem, 
which  grows  to  a  great  length,  bearing  large,  opposite, 
heart-shaped,  or  lobed  leaves,  toothed  like  a  saw  at  the 
margin,  and  extremely  rough.  The  barren  flowers  are 
small,  greenish,  and  very  numerous.  The  fertile  flowers 
grow  on  distinct  plants,  and  consist  of  green  scales,  ar- 
ranged in  cone-shaped  heads,  each  scale  enclosing  a  small 
seed  vessel  with  a  single  seed,  and  several  grains  of  a 
yellow  powder,  in  which  the  bitter  flavor  of  the  hop 
chiefly  resides. 


SAGO.  273 

In  the  hop  grounds  poles  are  placed  for  the  plants  to 
twine  around ;  these  are  taken  down  and  laid  across  lai-ge 
baskets  or  boxes,  when  the  hops  are  picked.  The  fertile 
flowers  only  are  valuable,  and  the  plants  bearing  the  bar- 
ren ones  are  seldom  allowed  to  grow.  After  being  picked, 
the  hops  are  dried  in  kilns,  termed  oast  houses,  and  packed 
in  large  bags  for  the  convenience  of  carriage.  This  pack- 
ing is  frequently  done  by  machinery,  and  the  parcels  are 
made  so  compact  that  they  may  be  cut  into  blocks  with 
a  knife,  and  kept  for  years  in  a  dry  situation.  The 
expense  of  cultivation  is  very  great,  and  the  crop  is  ex- 
ceedingly uncertain  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  the  latter 
varying  from  two  to  twenty  hundred-weight  an  acre;  from 
ien  to  fourteen  is  regarded  a  favorable  return  ;  warm  sea- 
sons, with  little  rain,  are  most  productive. 

Uses. — Hops  possess  a  pecuhar,  bitter  taste,  and  a 
strong  odor ;  they  are  valuable  from  their  strengthening 
properties,  and  are  also  cultivated  for  their  use  in  making 
beer  and  yeast,  to  which  they  impart  their  aromatic  fl.avor, 
enabling  them  also  to  be  kept  a  considerable  time  without 
turning  sour.  They  are  used  in  medicine,  both  in  decoc- 
tions and  in  poultices.  The  fibres  of  the  vine  are  strong 
and  flexible,  and  are  sometimes  woven  into  coarse  cloth, 
which  serves  for  sacks  in  which  to  carry  the  hops  to 
market. 

LESSON    XXXII. 

SAGO. 

Sago  is  the  pith  of  the  sago  palm,  a  tree  indigenous  to 
Japan,  and  the  dry  rocky  mountains  of  Malabar. 
12* 


2Y4  FIFTH    STEP. ^LESSON   XXXII. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  imagine  a  plant  more  graceful 
in  its  foliage,  or  more  beautiful  when  in  fruit,  than  this 
species  of  palm.  Tlie  foliation,  which  slightly  resembles 
that  of  the  fern,  is  placed  on  the  stem  in  the  manner  of 
the  feathei*s  of  a  shuttlecock,  forming  a  gigantic  basket  of 
the  most  graceful  appearance ;  at  the  bottom  of  this  is  the 
salmon-colored  flower,  resembling,  both  in  shape  and  tex- 
ture, the  blossom  of  the  cockscomb,  but  of  a  pale  buff 
color,  inclining  to  brown.  The  fruit  is  a  drupe,  that  is,  a 
nut  surrounded  by  a  pulpy  substance,  as  a  plum.  The 
growth  of  this  plant  at  first  is  slow ;  it  appears  for  some 
time  a  shrub  thickly  set  with  prickles ;  as  it  increases  in 
height,  it  loses  its  thorns.  When  the  tree  has  reached  its 
maturity,  a  whitish  powder  transpires  through  the  pores 
of  the  leaves,  and  adheres  to  their  extremities.  On  this 
intimation  of  the  trees  being  filled  with  pith,  the  Malays 
cut  tliem  down  near  their  roots,  and  divide  them  into  sev- 
eral sections,  which  are  split  into  quarters  The  bark  is 
woody,  and  about  an  inch  in  thickness ;  in  the  centre  of 
the  stem  is  a  fat  or  gummy  pith,  which  forms  the  sago. 
Tliis  pithy  substance,  being  scooped  out,  is  diluted  in  pure 
water,  and  strained  through  a'~bag  ot  fine  cloth,  which 
separates  the  glutinous  from  the  farinaceous  matter.  This 
latter  having  lost  part  of  its  moisture  by  evaporation,  is 
passed  through  sieves,  by  which  process  it  become  granu- 
lated, and  being  received  into  earthen  vessels,  it  dries  and 
hardens  into  little  globules.  Sago  is  extremely  nutritious 
and  wholesome,  and  forms  an  excellent  light  diet  for 
invalids. 


V  STARCH.  2  75 

LESSON  xxxm. 

STARCH. 

History  and  Properties. — Starch  is  a  vegetable  pro- 
duct, formed  in  very  large  quantity  by  many  plants,  and 
stored  in  various  parts  of  their  structure ;  constituting  a 
reservoir  of  food  to  be  used  in  the  future  growth  of  the 
plant.  It  is  found  abundantly  in  seeds,  as  in  wheat,  rice, 
chestnuts,  cfec,  &c. ;  in  stems,  as  in  the  sago  palm ;  in  un- 
derground tubers  and  roots,  as  the  potato,  arrowroot, 
<fec.,  &c. 

Starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  and  remains  un- 
changed until  it  is  required  for  the  growth  of  the  plant 
for  whose  use  it  was  stored  up ;  it  then  alters  its  charac- 
ter, becoming  converted  into  sugar,  which  being  soluble,  is 
available  for  the  nourishment  of  the  growing  plant.  The 
results  of  this  change  are  familiar  in  the  conversion  of  bar- 
ley into  malt,  and  in  the  sweetness  of  a  potato  that  has 
begun  to  grow. 

Starch  is  prepared  in  England  chiefly  from  wheat  and 
rice  flour  ;  in  America,  from  Indian  corn  and  potatoes ;  and 
in  France  from  horse  chestnuts.  Its  preparation  on  a  small 
scale  may  be  shown  by  tying  a  small  quantity  of  flour  in  a 
piece  of  muslin,  and  working  it  with  the  fingers  in  a  vessel 
of  water  until  all  the  starch  has  passed  through,  leaving 
the  gluten  of  the  flour ;  on  allowing  the  water  to  remain 
at  rest,  the  starch  so  obtained  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel. 

As  thus   obtained,  starch  is  a  granular  powder,  of  a 


276  riFTH   STEP. — LESSON  XXXIV. 

brilliant  white  appearance,  perfectly  insoluble  in  cold  wa- 
ter, but  soluble  in  boiling  water,  forming  a  thick  gummy 
solution,  which  is  much  used  by  laundresses,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  many  textile  fabrics,  for  the  purpose  of 
stiffening. 

Starch  may  also  be  rendered  soluble  by  a  dry  heat ;  the 
substance  called  dextrine,  or  British  gum  (which  is  used  in 
the  glazed  print  works),  is  made  by  exposing  starch  in 
ovens  to  a  degree  of  heat  rather  above  that  of  the  boiling 
point  of  water. 

In  addition  to  these  uses,  starch  is  an  important  in- 
gredient in  almost  all  our  vegetable  food,  and  in  a  nearly 
pure  state  is  used  in  the  form  of  arrowroot,  potato  starch, 
corn  starch,  sago,  and  tapioca. 


Miscellaneous  Substances  not  used  as  food, 
LESSON  XXXIV. 

WAFERS. 

Manufacture. — Wafers  arc  made  from  wheaten  flour, 
which  is  mixed  with  water  so'Os  to  form  a  thin  smooth 
paste ;  this  paste  is  pressed  by  the  workmen  between  two 
thin  polished  iron  plates,  so  joined  together  as  to  form, 
when  closed,  a  pair  of  "  wafer  tongs ; "  the  plates  do  not 
quite  touch  each  other,  but  are  separated  by  a  space  as 
thick  as  the  wafers  are  required ;  when  used  they  are 
slightly  warmed  and  greased,  filled  with  the  flour  paste, 
closed,  and  held  for  a  few  moments  over  a  charcoal  fire  ; 
the  heat  sets  the  paste,  and  on  separating  the  tongs,  a  thin 


SEALING   WAX.  277 

sheet  of  polished  dry  brittle  wafer  falls  out.  Several  of 
these  are  piled  up,  and  by  means  of  a  punch  are  cut  into 
small  circular  wafers  of  the  size  required.  Made  with 
flour  only,  the  wafers  are  Avhite,  but  they  are  frequently 
colored  by  mixing  various  substances  with  the  paste,  as 
lamp  black,  gamboge,  indigo,  vermilion,  and  red  lead ; 
most  of  these  substances  are  poisonous,  especially  the  last 
two,  and  injurious  eifects  have  in  consequence  often  fol- 
lowed their  use  in  large  numbers.  Transparent  wafers  are 
made  of  fine  glue  or  isinglass,  and  some  fancy  wafers  are 
cut  from  gilt  or  silvered  paper,  gummed  on  the  lower  sur- 
face, and  generally  embossed. 

Uses. — The  use  of  wafers  for  fastening  papers  and  let- 
ters depends  on  their  becoming  soft  and  adhesive  when 
moistened ;  if  in  this  state  they  are  placed  between  two 
pieces  of  paper,  and  the  latter  pressed  together,  the  wafer 
adheres  to  both,  and  when  dry  unites  them  firmly. 

LESSON  XXXV. 

SEALING   WAX. 

Manufacture. — Sealing  wax  is  prepared  by  melting  to- 
gether a  resinous  substance  termed  shellac  (which  is  found 
encrusting  certain  trees  in  the  East  Indies),  and  about  one 
quarter  of  its  weight  of  Venice  turpentine,  a  thick  clammy 
substance,  obtained  by  wounding  the  larch  tree  ;  to  these 
Ingredients  are  added,  for  red  wax,  the  pigment  vermilion, 
and,  for  black,  lamp  black;  these  substances  are  well 
mixed,  and  rolled  into  cylindrical  rods  on  a  hot  smooth 
marble  slab  ;  these  rods  are  cut  into  sticks  of  the  propejf 


2V^  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  XXXVI. 

length ;  polished  by  exposure  for  a  few  moments  to  a  char, 
coal  fire ;  and  marked  by  a  stamp  with  the  maker's  name ; 
oval  sticks  are  formed  by  casting  the  wax  into  moulds  of 
the  desired  shape. 

Inferior  kinds  of  wax,  such  as  that  used  for  covering 
the  corks  of  bottles,  are  made  from  common  resin  and  red 
lead,  or  other  coarse  coloring  material. 

Properties  and  Uses. — Sealing  wax  is  a  hard,  easily 
fusible  substance,  capable  of  catching  fire  when  placed  in 
the  flame  of  a  candle,  and  of  burning  steadily ;  the  heat 
given  out  by  the  blazing  portion  melts  another  part,  which 
falls  down  in  drops  in  a  fused  and  adhesive  state,  capable 
of  adhering  very  firmly  to  paper,  or  any  other  porous  sub- 
«tances ;  it  will  not,  however,  unite  to  the  polished  face  of 
a  metal  or  stone  seal.  In  its  melted  state,  sealing  wax  is 
sufficiently  j^lastic  to  receive  any  impression  stamped  upon 
it ;  this  it  retains  as  it  becomes  solid.  It  is  therefore  much 
used  by  seal  engravers  in  obtaining  fine  proof  impressions. 

The  ordinary  resins  do  not  answer  for  sealing  wax,  be- 
cause they  are  so  fusible  as  to  melt  in  the  flame  before 
they  are  sufficiently  heated  to  take  fire.  ^ 

LESSON    XXXVI. 

PAPER. 

Paper  is  made  from  a  great  variety  of  materials,  as 
linen,  cotton,  worn  out  India  bagging,  wood,  bark,  straw,' 
hay,  and  thistles,  according  to  the  kind  required.  The 
Chinese  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  manufacturers 
of  linen  paper.     It  was  not,  however,  till  the  13th  or  14th 


PAPER.  279 

century  that  the  art  became  known  to  European  nations. 
It  is  made  of  linen  rags,  first  carefully  picked  and  sorted 
according  to  their  quality;  they  are  then  reduced  to  a 
pulp  by  a  machine  which  consists  of  a  solid  cylindrical 
piece  of  wood,  into  which  are  fastened  plates  of  steel 
ground  very  sharp ;  this  is  fixed  in  a  trough,  into  which 
the  rags  are  put  with  a  sufl^icient  quantity  of  water.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  trough  is  a  plate  with  steel  bars,  also 
ground  sharp.  The  engine  being  turned  round  with  con- 
siderable velocity,  and  the  rags  passing  through  the  two 
sets  of  iron  plates,  are  torn  to  pieces,  and  in  the  course  of 
four  hours  are  reduced  to  a  pulp.  The  motion  of  the  en- 
gine causes  the  water  in  the  trough  to  circulate,  and  by 
that  means  constantly  returns  the  stufi"  to  the  engine.  The 
trough  is  fed  with  clear  water  at  one  end,  while  the  dirty 
water  is  carried  off  at  the  other  through  a  hole  defended 
with  wire  grating  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  pulp.  From 
this,  which  is  called  the  washing  engine^  the  pulp  passes  in 
a  state  of  purity  and  whiteness  to  another  engine,  similarly 
constructed,  and  called  the  heating  engine.  The  only  dif- 
ference between  this  operation  and  the  former  is,  that  the 
velocity  is  increased,  and  that  it  is  no  longer  necessary 
to  introduce  fresh  water,  the  pulp  having  been  already 
cleansed  from  its  impurities.  From  hence  it  passes  into 
a  large  vat  connected  with  boilers,  and  the  heat  they 
produce  gives  the  pulp  a  degree  of  consistency ;  it  is 
afterward  conveyed  into  smaller  vessels,  in  each  of  which 
is  a  wheel  called  an  agitator,  which  prevents  it  from  sink- 
ing to  the  bottom.  Into  these  vessels  a  workman  dips  a 
ciould»  a  kind  of  sieve,  the  size  of  the  paper  to  be  made. 


200  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   XXXVL 

and  about  an  inch  deep;  the  bottom  is  formed  of  fine 
brass  wires,  through  which  the  superfluous  water  passes. 
The  skill  of  the  workman  consists  in  taking  up  just  so 
much  pulp  as  is  necessary  to  form  the  paper  of  a  proper 
thickness.  Another  workman  is  stationed  to  receive  from 
the  first  the  mould,  out  of  which  he  turns  the  sheet  upon 
a  felt  or  woollen  clotli ;  another  woollen  cloth  is  placed 
upon  it,  ready  to  receive  the  next  sheet.  Thus  th(cjy  pro- 
ceed, placing  alternately  paper  and  felt,  till  they  have  made 
six  quires  of  paper.  This  is  then  wheeled  to  the  press, 
where  great  force  is  applied,  and  the  water  is  squeezed 
from  it.  After  this  the  paper  is  separated  from  the  felt ; 
one  sheet  is  laid  upon  another,  and  it  undergoes  a  second 
pressure.  This  operation  is  repeated  five  or  six  times, 
and  the  sheets  are  separated  from  one  another  between 
each  appUcation  of  the  screw-press.  They  are  afterward 
hung  up  to  dry  in  rooms  where  there  is  a  current  of  fresh 
air.  In  this  state  the  paper  is  absorbent,  like  blotting  pa- 
per ;  to  fit  it  for  writing  it  is  sized.  Size  is  made  of  vel- 
lum *  shavings,  boiled  in  water,  with  sulphate  of  zinc  and 
alum  finely  pounded.  After  the  papci'  is  sized,  it  is  again 
pressed  four  or  five  times,  and  h«ng  up  to  dry  as  before. 
It  is  then  told  into  quires,  and  sent  to  the  stationer^  who 
prepares  it  for  sale. 

The  most  ancient  kind  of  paper  w\'is  made  from  the 
papyrus,  a  species  of  reed  growing  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  from  whence  our  name  joaper.  Leaves  also  were  em- 
ployed at  a  very  early  period  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
and  transmitting  the  opinions  and  experience  of  mankind ; 
•  Vellum  is  the  prepared  skin  of  young  calves. 


NUTGALLS.  283 

hence  originated  the  word  folio  (folium  being  the  Latin 
for  leaf),  and  also  the  meaning  of  leaf  as  applied  to  a  book. 
The  use  of  bark  succeeded  that  of  leaves,  generally  the  inner 
bark  of  the  lime  tree  ;  it  was  called  by  the  Romans  liher^ 
and  they  gave  the  name  of  liher  to  a  book,  and  we  have 
adopted  the''  term  library  for  a  collection  of  books.  For 
the  convenience  of  carrying,  this  substance  was  rolled  up, 
and  in  this  form  was  denominated  volnmen^  from  which  is 
clearly  derived  oar  volume.  Our  Saxon  ancestors  em- 
ployed the  bark  of  the  beech,  and  called  it  5oc,  a  name 
which  we  have  transferred  to  our  booh.  It  is  probable 
that  the  skins  of  animals  were  the  first  substances  upon 
which  characters  were  written. 

LESSOX  XXXVII. 

NUTGALLS. 

Natural  Illstory . — Kutgalls  are  obtained  from  a  small, 
shrubby  oak,  that  grows  abundantly  in  all  the  countries  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  plant  seldom  attains  a  greater  height 
than  six  feet.  It  bears  leaves,  flowers,  and  acorns,  which 
do  not  differ  in  any  very  great  degree  from  those  of  our 
native  oaks.  The  nutgalls  are  caused  by  a  small  fly,  which 
pierces  the  bark  of  the  young  shoots  to  deposit  its  ^^^^  ; 
around  this  a  swelling  takes  place,  forming  the  gall ;  when 
the  ^i^^  is  hatched,  the  grub  feeds  on  the  substance  of  the 
gall  that  surrounds  it ;  after  a  time  it  is  changed  into  a 
perfect  insect,  and,  by  gnawing  a  hole  through  the  side  of 
the  nutgall,  makes  its  escape. 

Nutgalls  are  gathered  by  hand.     They  are  most  valu 


282  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XXXVH. 

able  when  arrived  at  their  full  size,  and  before  they  are 
pierced  by  the  fly  ;  in  this  state  they  are  termed  bine  galls ; 
as  obtained  in  commerce,  they  are  nearly  spherical,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  a  large  pea  to  a  large  nut ;  the  best  are  of 
a  deep  olive  color,  and  are  covered  with  tubercular  projec- 
tions, heavy,  brittle,  with  an  almost  flinty  fracture  ;  when 
broken,  they  exhibit  the  remains  of  the  grub,  and  not  un- 
frequently  the  perfect  insect  is  found  enclosed.  Those 
from  which  the  insects  have  escaped  are  lighter  in  color, 
not  so  heavy,  and,  as  before  observed,  of  less  value.  They 
are  known  in  commerce  as  white  galls. 

Properties  and  Uses. — Nutgalls  are  inodorous,  and  of 
an  extremely  nauseous,  astringent,  bitter  taste.  They  are 
much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  writing  ink,  as  they 
produce  a  black  color  when  mixed  with  preparations  of 
iron  ;  they  are  also  largely  employed  in  dyeing  silk,  cloth, 
and  other  substances,  of  a  black  color ;  occasionally  they 
are  used  in  medicine. 


INSECTS.  283 


THE    ANIMAL     KINGDOM. 

INSECTS. 

General  Ohservatioiis  on  Insects. 

The  animals  which  belong  to  this  large  and  important 
class  receive  their  name  from  the  Latin  word  insectus^  cut 
into  /  as  they  have  in  general  the  appearance  of  being  cut 
into  three  parts — the  head,  the  chest,  and  the  abdomen. 
They  are  also  distinguished  by  passing  through  a  very  re- 
markable series  of  changes  before  they  arrive  at  their  per- 
fect state.  The  bodies  of  insects,  in  every  stage,  are 
destitute  of  any  internal  framework  of  bones,  being  sup- 
ported by  the  skin,  which  is  frequently  sufficiently  firm  to 
be  capable  of  giving  a  fixed  shape  to  the  body,  and  of 
forming  the  joints  to  the  limbs. 

In  their  perfect  or  mature  state  the  head  is  covered 
with  several  distinct  pieces  of  horny  skin,  and  usually  fur- 
nished with  two  movable  organs,  termed  from  their  use 
feelers;  below  these  is  the  mouth,  which  opens  perpen- 
dicularly. The  eyes  of  insects  generally  are  compound^ 
each  eye,  though  apparently  single,  consisting  of  a  large 
number  of  eyes  united  together ;  in  some  species,  however, 
the  eyes  are  simple,  and  few  in  number. 

The  chest  supports  the  wings,  which  are  either  two  in 
number,  as  in  the  house  fly ;  or  four,  as  in  the  butterfly. 
In  some  classes  the  upper  wings  are  not  used  for  flight, 
but  form  a  horny  covering  for  the  protection  of  the  two 


284  FIFTH    STEP. THE  ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 

lower  wings,  which  are  thin  and  delicate ;  this  occurs  in 
the  lady  bird,  the  cockchafer,  &c.  The  difference  in  the 
construction  of  the  wings  is  very  considerable,  and  fur- 
nishes the  means  whereby  this  large  class  of  animals  (of 
which  naturalists  have  reckoned  more  than  100,000  dis- 
tinct kinds)  can  be  arranged  into  several  smaller  divisions 
or  orders ;  to  the  chest  also  are  attached  the  legs,  which  in 
all  true  insects  are  six  in  number.  Insects  do  not  breathe 
through  their  mouths,  or  by  means  of  lungs,  but  the  air 
passes  through  pores  in  their  sides,  and  is  then  conveyed 
by  very  small  tubes  over  the  whole  body. 

The  changes  through  which  insects  pass  are  very  singu- 
lar ;  they  are  hatched  from  eggs,  which  are  usually  laid  in 
great  numbers,  and  deposited  with  remarkable  instinct  ia 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  such  food  as  will  be  suit- 
able to  the  young.  From  these  eggs  proceed  larvce,  or,  as 
they  are  more  commonly  called,  grubs,  maggots,  or  cater- 
pillars, which  are  at  birth  very  small  in  size ;  they,  how^ 
ever,  usually  grow  with  great  rapidity,  eating  voraciously; 
a  silkworm,  for  example,  attains  in  thirty  days  many  thou- 
sand times  its  original  weight. 

During  their  continuance  .in  this  state,  their  rapid 
growth  renders  it  necessary  that  the  skin  should  be  seve- 
ral times  cast  off,  to  permit  the  great  increase  of  size  that 
takes  place. 

Arrived  at  its  full  size,  the  larva  changes  into  a  pttpa^ 
or  chrysalis,  in  which  state  it  is  enclosed  in  a  horny  skin,  is 
destitute  of  limbs,  and  without  the  power  of  moving. 
After  remaining  in  this  state  for  some  time,  the  animal 
bursts  its  enclosure  and  appears  as  the  perfect  insect ;  in 


BEESWAX.  285 

this  stage  its  life  is  usually  short ;  it  lays  eggs  for  the  pro- 
duction of  another  generation,  and  dies.  In  some  insects 
the  whole  of  the  stages  described  are  not  passed  through, 
or  are  not  distinctly  marked.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
common  cockroach,  or  house  beetle,  and  many  others. 

Though  individually  of  small  size  and  comparative  in- 
significance, yet  insects,  from  their  vast  numbers  and  great 
voracity,  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  economy  of 
nature.  In  numerous  cases  they  act  as  natural  scavengers, 
removing  with  great  rapidity  all  kinds  of  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  matters ;  and  many  are  useful  directly  to 
man,  furnishing  him  with  food,  medicine,  dyes,  &c. 

INSECTS,  a:n'd  substa:n'ces  derived  from  them, 

LESSON  XXXVIII. 

BEESWAX. 

Preparation  and  Uses. — Beeswax,  the  formation  of 
which  has  been  already  described,  is  prepared  for  use  by 
melting  the  comb  in  boiling  water,  the  honey  having  been 
previously  extracted  ;  in  this  state  it  is  yellow,  and  has  a 
peculiar  smell.  Yellow  wax  is  freed  from  impurities  by 
melting,  when  the  heavier  particles  sink  to  the  bottom,  and 
the  lighter  rise  to  the  top,  and  are  removed  by  skimming. 
When  purified,  it  is  used  for  making  ointments,  cements, 
&c.  ;  it  melts  quickly  under  the  heat  of  boiling  water,  and 
becomes  soft  at  the  temperature  of  the  human  body. 
When  warm,  it  is  sufficiently  soft  to  take  the  impression 
of  any  object,  which  it  retains  when  cold  and  hard ;  for 


286  FIFTH   STEP. ^LESSON   XXXVni. 

this  purpose  wax  is  much  used  by  dentists,  &c.  Beeswax 
is  whitened  by  the  process  of  bleaching ;  it  is  first  formed 
into  thin  ribands  or  shavings,  which  are  laid  upon  canvas 
in  a  bleaching  ground,  where,  by  the  action  of  the  sun, 
they  become  colorless,  and  are  cast  into  small  flat  cakes. 
In  this  state  wax  is  used  for  making  artificial  flowers  and 
fruit,  for  waxing  sewing  thread,  and  for  making  candles. 
The  manufacture  of  wax  candles  differs  from  the  mode 
adopted  in  making  any  other  kind.  Common  candles  are 
made  by  repeatedly  dipping  the  wicks  into  the  melted  tal- 
low until  they  are  of  sutiicient  size  for  use ;  and  the  name 
of  dips  is  given  tliem  fiom  the  manner  in  which-  they  are 
made.  The  candles  called  moulds  are  made  by  pouring 
the  melted  tallow  into  pewter  moulds  in  which  the  wick 
has  been  previously  stretched.  If  wax  were  to  be  treated 
in  this  way,  it  would  not  come  out  readily  from  the  mould  ; 
therefore,  in  forming  candles  of  this  substance,  the  wicks 
are  hung  on  a  hoop  suspended  over  a  pan  of  melted  wax; 
the  workman  pours  over  each  wick  a  quantity  of  wax, 
which  adheres  to  it ;  but  as  the  candle  would  be  larger  at 
the  bottom  from  the  running  down  of  the  melted  wax,  the 
wick  is  unhooked  and  hung  up  again  bottom  upward, 
when  wax  is  again  poured  over  it,  and  it  becomes  ^>f  a 
more  uniform  shape.  It  is  then  taken  from  the  hoop,  laid 
on  a  moist  slab,  and  rolled  with  a  smooth  board  until  it  is 
of  the  proper  shape ;  the  required  length  is  given  it  by 
cutting  off"  the  rough  end. 


GKASSHOPPEB.  287 

LESSON    XXXIX. 

GRASSHOPPER. 

Natural  History. — Grasshoppers  are  well  known  in- 
sects, remarkable  for  possessing  in  an  almost  equal  degree 
the  powers  of  flying  and  leaping.  The  body  is  thin,  long, 
and  flattened  at  the  sides  ;  the  legs  are  six  in  number,  the 
hinder  ones  being  much  larger  than  the  others,  and  longer 
than  the  body.  Each  hind  leg  consists  of  three  distinct 
parts — the  ihigh,  the  shank,  and  the  foot ;  these  legs  are 
not  used  in  walking,  but  are  only  employed  in  leaping. 
When  the  animal  wishes  to  leap,  it  draws  the  feet  of  the 
hind  legs  close  to  that  part  of  the  thigh  that  joins  the 
body,  the  joint  uniting  the  thigh  and  shank  being  bent  to 
a  very  sharp  angle,  high  above  the  back  of  the  insect ; 
the  various  joints  of  the  leg  are  then  suddenly  and  pow- 
erfully straightened,  and  the  foot  forcibly  striking  the 
ground,  the  animal  is  propelled  high  into  the  air. 

The  wings  of  the  perfect  insect  are  thin  and  membra- 
nous ;  when  at  rest  they  are  not  observed,  as  they  are 
folded  up  in  a  fan-like  form  under  narrow  wing-cases. 

The  chirping  noise  made  by  the  insect  is  caused  by 
the  rubbing  of  the  thighs  of  the  hind  legs  against  the 
horny  wing  covers.  The  appetite  of  these  insects  is  vora- 
cious ;  they  feed  entirely  on  vegetable  substances. 

The  eggs  of  the  female  are  deposited  in  the  ground, 
and  the  young  hatched  from  them  resemble  the  old  ones 
in  appearance;  but  they  are  not  furnished  with  either 
wings  or  wing-covers,  consequently  they  are  unable  to  fly 


288  FIFTH    STEP. SHELLS. 

or   cliirp.     After   some   time   these  parts  grow,  and  the 
young  one  is  changed  into  the  perfect  insect. 

SH£LLS. 

General  Observatiotis  on  Shells. 

The  substances  known  as  shells  are  the  natural  cover- 
ings of  certain  animals,  which  are  distinguished  by  the 
absence  of  any  internal  framework  or  skeleton  ;  by  having 
cold  and  colorless  blood;  by  their  senses  baing  usually 
but  slightly  developed;  and  by  their  being  soft,  fleshy, 
and  cold  to  the  touch  ;  animals  of  this  kind  ar^  termed 
molluscous,  from  two  Latin  words  signifying  soft  flesh; 
some  of  them,  as  the  common  slug,  are  destitute  of  any 
shelly  covering. 

The  number  of  distinct  shells  which  have  been  de- 
scribed is  upward  of  fifteen  thousand. 

Shells  consist  chiefly  of  chalk  or  carbonate  of  lime, 
■Which  is  cemented  into  a  mass  by  animal  matter ;  the  in- 
ner surface  of  each  is  lined  by  a  part  of  the  skin  of  the 
animal,  which  has  the  power  of  secreting  or  forming  the 
substance  of  the  shell ;  and,  as-the  animal  grows,  is  con- 
stantly enlarging  it,  by  adding  new  shell  at  the  edges,  or 
around  the  mouth  of  the  opening ;  this  skin  has  also  the 
power  of  repairing  any  injury  that  may  have  occurred,  by- 
forming  new  shell  at  the  injured  part. 

Shells  are  interesting  to  us,  not  only  on  account  of 
their  beauty  and  durability,  but  also  from  the  evident  in- 
stances of  design  they  afford,  and  from  the  creative  wisdom 
displayed  in  their  formation ;  those  which  are  exposed  to 


SHELLS.  289 

the  dashing  of  the  waves  on  the  shore,  or  to  the  torrents 
of  rapid  rivers,  are  often  of  almost  impenetrable  hardness, 
as  in  the  periwinkle ;  others,  like  the  common  snail,  not 
exposed  to  violence,  are  thin  and  light,  so  that  they  may 
be  readily  borne  by  the  inhabitant ;  every  shell  offer  strik- 
ing proofs  of  design  and  fitness  in  its  adaptation  to  the  ani- 
mal's station  and  habits. 

Shells,  and  their  inhabitants,  are  of  direct  use  to  man 
in  numerous  instances  ;  the  animals  in  many  cases  furnish 
very  nutritious  articles  of  food.  Shells  are  often  burned 
for  the  sake  of  the  lime  they  yield  ;  others  are  employed 
in  an  unburued  state  as  valuable  manure  ;  and  some  kinds 
are  used  as  a  substitute  for  gravel  in  garden  and  park 
walks.  To  the  natives  of  savage  countries  they  are  espe- 
cially valuable ;  the  sharp  edges  of  broken  pieces  being 
used  as  substitutes  for  knives,  and  for  forming  arrow  and 
spear  heads  ;  they  are  also  formed  into  fish  hooks,  and  used 
as  vessels  for  holding  liquids.  Over  a  large  extent  of 
Africa  a  small  shell,  the  money  cowry,  passes  instead  of 
money,  being  taken  in  exchange  for  goods  and  labor  in  the 
same  manner  as  coins  are  in  civilized  countries  ;  the  value, 
however,  of  each  shell  is  very  small,  a  string  of  forty  being 
not  worth  more  than  from  one  cent  to  four  cents.  About 
1,000  tons  of  money  cowries  are  annually  imported  into 
England  from  India,  being  employed  by  English  traders  in 
the  purchase  of  goods  from  the  natives  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa. 

In  China,  a  thin,  semi-transparent  shell  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  glass  in  glazing  windows  in  the  junks,  and  for 

lanterns. 

13 


290  FIFTH   STEP. — SHELLS. 

Vast  numbers  of  several  distinct  species  of  foreign 
shells  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cameos  for  brooches 
and  other  ornaments.  These  are  formed  from  univalve 
shells,  which  consist  of  several  layers  of  different  colors. 
The  engraver  cuts  away  the  outer  layers,  so  producing  the 
pattern  or  design  required.  Cameos  are  chiefly  made  in 
Paris,  where  upward  of  100,000  shells  are  used  annually. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  cameos  made  in  France  are  sent 
to  England,  and  are  mounted  as  brooches  at  Birmingham, 
and  then  exported  to  America  and  the  colonies.  In  1856 
there  were  imported  into  England  unmounted  cameos  of 
the  declared  value  of  6,683/. 

Shells,  for  the  convenience  of  arrangement,  are  ar- 
ranged into  three  groups — those  formed  of  one  piece,  or 
valve,  are  termed  univalves,  as  the  snail,  whelk,  &c. ;  those 
formed  of  two  valves,  united  by  a  hinge,  are  termed  bi- 
valves, as  the  oyster,  mussel,  &c, ;  and  those  formed  of 
several  pieces  are  termed  multivalves ;  the  latter,  however, 
are  not  so  abundant  as  the  first  two  divisions. 

Univalve  Shells. — A  univalve  shell  is  usually  formed 
of  several  hollow  whorls,  which  are  coiled  round  so  as  to 
form  the  spire,  the  largest  and  last  formed  being  termed 
the  bod^  whorl  /  the  entrance  into  the  shell  is  termed  the 
mouthy  its  two  sides  the  lips ;  where  the  spire  ends  is 
termed  the  point,  or  top  of  the  shell;  its  opposite  extrem- 
ity the  base;  many  shells,  as  that  of  the  whelk,  have  a 
projection  at  the  bottom  of  the  mouth ;  this  is  called  a 
beak  ;  it  frequently  contains  a  canal,  into  which  the  trunk 
of  the  living  animal  is  received.  When  an  animal  inhabit- 
ing a  univalve  shell  is  full   grow  ,  the  body  whorl  and 


SNAIL.  291 

mouth  are  often  ranch  altered  in  form,  and  frequently  so 
much  enlarged  as  entirely  to  overspread  and  conceal  the 
spire  and  other  parts, — this  happens  in  the  cowries,  the 
spotted  and  striped  varieties  of  which  are  frequently  seen 
ornamenting  our  sitting  rooms. 

The  animals  inhabiting  univalve  shells  are  much  more 
complicated  in  their  formation  than  those  of  the  bivalves ; 
they  have  a  distinct  head,  which  is  generally  furnished 
with  organs  termed  feelers ;  they  also  possess  the  sense  of 
sight,  and  are  furnished  with  a  broad  fleshy  foot  on  which 
they  crawl. 

LESSON  XL. 

SNAIL. 

Natural  History. — Snails,  of  which  many  distinct  kinds 
are  found  in  this  and  other  countries,  are  univalves,  of  a 
conical  form,  with  a  large  swelling  body  whorl,  a  smooth 
surface  destitute  of  spires  or  projections,  and  a  roundish 
mouth  without  a  beak  ;  the  shell  is  thin  and  light ;  at  tbe 
same  time  it  is  possessed  of  considerable  strength  j  the 
animals  are  furnished  with  four  feelers,  the  two  upper  are 
the  longer,  and  carry  at  their  ends  two  eyes,  which  appear 
like  dark  spots ;  the  means  by  which  these  feelers  are  pro- 
truded and  drawn  in  at  the  will  of  the  animal  are  particu- 
larly interesting;  each  feeler  may  be  compared  to  the 
linger  of  a  glove,  the  inside  of  which  has  a  string  sewn  to 
the  tip ;  the  effect  of  pulling  the  string  would  be  to  turn 
in  the  finger  of  the  glove,  beginning  at  the  extremity ; 
precisely  this  contrivance  exists  in  the  feeler  of  the  snail, 


292  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  XL. 

which,  however,  possesses  what  does  not  exist  in  the  glove, 
— a  series  of  circular  rings  like  fibres  surrounding  it  at 
every  part,  by  the  contraction  of  which,  in  their  proper 
order,  the  feeler  is  again  turned  out  or  protruded.  The 
eggs  of  the  snail  are  large  for  the  size  of  the  animal ;  they 
are  white,  and  resemble  berries  in  appearance ;  they  are 
deposited  in  June. 

Its  food  consists  entirely  of  vegetable  substances ;  dur- 
ing winter,  or  the  extreme  drought  of  summer,  or  at  any 
time  when  their  natural  food  is  not  to  be  obtained,  they 
close  the  mouth  or  opening  of  the  shell  with  a  thin  lid  of 
hardened  slime,  and  become  torpid  ;  if  put  into  a  box  they 
will  fix  themselves  to  the  sides  and  remain  in  a  dormant 
state  for  years,  reviving,  however,  immediately  if  moist- 
ened. By  this  beneficent  contrivance  these  animals  are 
not  only  enabled  to  abstain  from  food  during  winter,  but 
when  extreme  dryness  in  summer  has  parched  up  the 
vegetables  on  which  they  live,  they  have  the  power  of  be- 
coming dormant,  whilst  the  same  refreshing  shower  that 
restores  the  green  herbage,  calls  back  to  life  those  animals 
whose  food  it  forms. 

Various  kinds  of  snails  ha\^been  used  as  food  ;  a  large 
species,  with  a  shell  of  a  whitish  color,  with  brown  bands, 
was  eaten  by  the  Romans,  and  is  now  used  for  food  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  The  common  garden  snail  has 
been  used  sometimes  in  soup  prepared  for  consumptives. 
Snails  form  the  favorite  food  of  many  birds,  especially 
those  of  the  thrush  kind,  and  they  are  also  eaten  by  other 
animals. 


LIMPET.  293 

LESSON   XLI. 

LIMPET. 

Natural  History, — ^The  shell  of  the  limpet  is  remark- 
able for  its  form,  being  conical  without  and  concave  with- 
in, and  destitute  of  the  spirally  twisted  whorls  that  are 
usually  found  in  univalve  shells.  The  animal  is  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  feelers,  with  eyes,  and  a  hard,  firm  mouth, 
having  a  long  tongue  covered  with  minute  hooks  for  rasp- 
ing down  the  sea-weeds  on  which  it  feeds ;  it  has  a  broad 
fleshy  foot,  with  which  it  fixes  itself  immovably  to  rocks 
and  stones  when  left  uncovered  by  the  tide  ;  this  it  effects 
by  drawing  up  the  foot  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  vac- 
uum in  the  interior,  when  the  weight  of  the  air  and  water 
firmly  presses  down  the  shell,  on  the  same  principle  that 
one  may  attach  a  key  to  his  tongue.  This  simple  contri- 
vance, and  the  conical  form  of  the  shell,  enable  it  to  with- 
stand the  violence  of  the  waves  that  dash  against  the 
rocks;  and  thus  this  little  animal  from  within  its  stony 
castle  bids  defiance  to  the  storm,  and  magnifies  the  good- 
ness of  Him  who  made  it. 

In  Scotland  the  limpet  is  frequently  used  for  food,  and 
the  liquid  obtained  by  boiling  it  is,  when  mixed  with  oat- 
meal, much  esteemed. 

LESSON^    XLII. 

PERIWINKLE. 

Natural  History. — ^The   shell   of   the  periwinkle,    al- 


294  FIFTH    STEP. ^LESSON   XTJII. 

though  apparently  resembling  that  of  the  snail,  differs  in 
several  important  particulars,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  fact  that  one  animal  inhabits  the  land,  while  the  other 
is  exposed  to  the  violence  of  the  waves  on  the  sea-shore  ; 
the  shell  of  the  snail  is  thin,  light,  and  delicate ;  that  of 
the  periwinkle  exceedingly  thick  and  of  uncommon 
strength,  so  that  it  will  frequently  support  the  weight  of 
a  person  standing  on  it  without  bemg  crushed  ;  in  form 
the  shell  is  more  pointed  than  that  of  the  common  garden 
snail, — it  consists  of  five  or  six  rounded  w^horls,  the  body 
whorl  being  larger  than  all  the  others;  attached  to  the 
animal  is  a  horny  lid,  with  which  it  is  able  to. close  the 
opening  of  the  shell  when  it  retreats  within  it.  The  ani- 
baals  inhabiting  these  shells  differ  also  very  considerably, 
— one  breathing  air  by  means  of  lungs,  while  the  respira- 
tion of  the  other  resembles  that  carried  on  by  the  gills  of 
a  fish. 

The  periwinkle  is  very  extensively  used  for  food  by  the 
poorer  classes  of  London,  being  eaten  after  having  been 
boiled ;  it  is  collected  in  enormous  quantities  from  the 
rocks  and  stones,  when  they  are  left  bare  by  the  ebbing 
of  tha  tide.  .  ,j* 

LESSON  XLIIL 

WHELK. 

Natural  History. — The  shell  of  this  animal  is  formed 
of  seven  or  eight  rounded  whorls  marked  with  raised 
stripes,  and  is  of  a  dingy  white  or  brownish  color ;  tho 
mouth  of  the  shell  is  oval,  with  a  short  beak  and  a  canal  at 


WHELK.  295 

the  base ;  the  spire  is  much  more  elongated  than  in  the 
snail  or  periwinkle. 

The  animal  is  not  a  vegetable  feeder,  but  subsists  on 
the  inhabitants  of  other  shells,  especially  on  muscles ;  it  is 
enabled  to  obtain  its  food  by  means  of  a  short  trunk  or 
proboscis,  furnished  at  the  extremity  with  a  number  of 
very  small  teeth, — with  these  it  bores  through  the  shells 
of  its  prey,  and  extracts  the  softer  parts.  The  destructive 
powers  of  a  kind  of  whelk  proved  very  annoying  to  the 
builders  and  light-house  keepers  of  the  Bell  Rock  light- 
house, on  the  coast  of  Scotland ;  they  had  obtained  a  num- 
ber of  a  large  kind  of  muscle,  and  endeavored  to  plant  a 
colony  of  them  on  the  rock,  for  use  as  food  and  for  bait ; 
the  muscles  were  soon  observed  to  open  their  shells  and 
die  in  great  numbers ;  and  it  was  ascertained  that  the  rock 
whelk,  with  its  proboscis,  bored  small  holes  in  the  shells, 
and  sucked  out  the  finer  parts  of  the  body  of  the  muscle, 
which,  of  course,  perished;  it  was  remarked  that  the  whelk 
always  bored  the  thinnest  part  of  the  muscle  shell,  and 
that  the  hole  was  beautifully  smooth  and  circular.  As  the 
muscles  were  of  great  importance  to  the  men,  they  endeav- 
ored to  destroy  their  enemies  ;  but  these  were  so  numer- 
ous that  all  their  efforts  were  in  vain,  and  in  three  years 
the  muscles  were  all  extirpated. 

Whelks  furnish  but  indifferent  food  for  man,  as  they 
are  hard  and  indigestible;  they  are,  however,  liked  by 
some  persons,  and  are  constantly  sold  in  the  streets  of 
London  and  other  places ;  by  fishermen  they  are  largely 
employed  as  bait. 


296  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON   XLIV. 

LESSON    XLIV. 

SHELLS    OF   TWO   PIECES,  OR    BIVALVKi 

The  two  pieces,  or  valves,  of  which  these  shells  ar< 
formed,  are  united,  at  the  part  called  the  hinge,  by  an 
elastic  ligament,  which  keeps  the  shell  open ;  but  the  ani- 
mal, by  means  of  one  or  more  strong  muscles,  or  white 
fibrous  contractile  bands,  which  are  attached  inside  the 
valves,  and  pass  from  one  to  the  other,  can  close  them  at 
pleasure.  At  the  hinge  are  often  small  prominences; 
these  are  called  teeth,  and  the  points  of  the  valves  over 
the  hinge  are  called  beaks. 

The  animals  inhabiting  these  shells  differ  much  from 
those  of  the  univalves  ;  they  have  no  distinct  head,  and 
consequently  do  not  possess  either  eyes  or  feelers ;  their 
mouth  is  merely  a  small  aperture,  destitute  of  teeth ;  they 
breathe  by  means  of  gills ;  these  gills  in  the  oyster  are  the 
parts  familiarly  known  as  the  beard, — when  examined  by  a 
microscope,  they  are  found  to  be  covered  with  minute 
bodies  called  cilia,  in  shape  like  hairs,  which,  by  their 
constant  motion,  cause  currents  in  the  water  that  carry 
food  to  the  mouth  of  the  animal. 

Some  of  these  animals  are  furnished  with  feet,  by 
which  they  crawl ;  others,  like  the  muscle,  anchor  them- 
selves by  a  cable  of  small  fibres,  while  a  third  set,  as  the 
oyster,  cement  themselves  to  rocks,  and  are  incapable  of 
moving  from  place  to  place. 


MUSCLK.  297 

LESSON    XLV. 

MUSCLE. 

Katural  History. — The  shell  of  the  muscle  consists  of 
two  valves  of  equal  size,  and  similar  oval  shape,  pointed  at 
the  beaks ;  their  color  is  brown  externally,  but  when  freed 
from  the  outer  layer,  and  polished,  of  a  beautiful  deep  blue, 
the  inside  pearly  white,  but  bluish  towards  the  edges.  The 
animals  have  the  power  of  moving  from  place  to  place  by 
means  of  a  tongue-shaped  foot,  which  they  push  out  of  the 
shell  to  some  distance,  and  withdraw  again ;  when  they 
wish  to  move,  they  place  the  shell  erect  on  its  edge,  and 
stretch  out  the  foot, — this,  being  sticky,  adheres  to  the 
ground,  and,  when  shortened,  pulls  the  shell  forward ;  in 
this  way  the  muscle  moves  along  until  it  finds  a  convenient 
place  of  residence,  when  it  forms  a  bundle  of  fine  silky 
threads,  one  end  of  which  it  fastens  to  the  rock,  while  the 
other  is  attached  to  the  animal ;  thus  it  remains  securely 
anchored. 

Muscles  are  found  on  the  coast  of  England  in  immense 
numbers,  in  beds  which  are  uncovered  at  low  water ;  wo- 
men and  children  tear  them  away  with  iron  hooks  from  the 
rocks  and  stones  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  sell  them 
as  they  are  thus  collected  ;  but  in  France  they  are  fattened 
as  oysters  are  in  this  country. 

The  muscle  is  largely  used  for  food,  being  eaten  either 

plainly  boiled  or  pickled  ;  it  is  a  rich,  and,  when  in  season, 

not  an  unwholesome  food ;  in  the  summer,  however,  it  is 

apt  to  disagree  with  many  persons ;  this  was  long  thought 

13* 


298  I'nn'H  step. — i.ksson  xt.vi. 

to  be  owing  to  a  small  crab,  which  is  often  founcJ  in  the 
shell  with  the  muscle,  but  there  seems  no  good  reason  for 
this  supposition  ;  the  muscle  is  much  used  by  fishermen  as 
a  bait  for  cod,  haddock,  &g.  The  shells  are  also  much 
employed  for  holding  the  gold  paint  used  by  artists. 

LESSON     XLVI. 

MOTHER- OF-PKARL. 

Description.  -Mother-of-pearl  is  the  hard,  semi-trans- 
parent, brilliarxt,  iridescent  substance  which  forms  the  in- 
ternal layer  of  several  kinds  of  shells ;  the  interior  of  the 
common  oyiter  shell  is  of  this  character,  but  the  mother- 
of-pearl  used  in  the  arts  is  much  more  variegated  with  a 
play  of  color,  and  the  larger  shells  of  the  tropical  seas 
alone  have  this  substance  of  sufficient  thickness  to  be  use- 
ful ;  the  chief  supply  of  the  mother-of-pearl  oyster  shell 
comes  from  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
parts  of  Australia- 

The  play  of  colors  in  mother-of-pearl  depends  on  its  pecu- 
liar structure  ;  it  is  so  formed  that  it  possesses,  even  when 
polished,  a  series  of  fine  grooves  ^running  over  the  surface; 
these  reflect  the  light  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the 
various  hues  seen  on  the  surface;  the  furrows  are  too  small 
to  be  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye,  but  may  be  seen  with 
the  aid  of  a  microscope ;  an  impression  of  them  may  be 
taken  with  very  fine  black  sealing  wax,  which  will  then 
possess,  to  a  considerable  extent,  a  similar  appearance. 

Uses  to  Man. — Immense  quantities  of  mother-of-pearl 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  small  articles,  such  as  but* 


BONES.  299 

tons,  knife  handles,  salt  spoons,  &c.,  <fec.,  and  it  is  much 
employed  in  inlaying  dark  woods,  with  which  its  varied 
surface  forms  a  beautiful  and  striking  contrast. 

Recently,  the  dark  varieties  of  the  shell  have  come  into 
demand ;  these  were  formerly  regarded  as  valueless,  and 
were  rejected.  It  is  stated  that  whole  wagon  loads  lie 
buried  under  some  of  the  streets  of  Birmingham,  where  it 
was  thrown  as  waste,  while  it  is  now  worth  from  15/.  to 
201.  per  ton. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  extensive  use  of  this 
material  from  the  fact  that  England  imported  in  1857 
nearly  35,000  cwt.,  the  estimated  value  being  57,819/. 
Of  this  quantity,  about  one-fourth  was  re-exported  to 
Gther  countries,  the  remainder  being  retained  for  home 
consumption. 

MISCELLANEOUS    OBJECTS. 

LESSOJ^  XLYII. 

BONES. 

Katural  History. — The  bodies  of  all  the  higher  classes 
of  animals  are  supported  by  an  internal  framework  of 
bones,  termed  the  skeleton ;  these  bones,  to  resist  without 
injury  the  various  forces  to  which  they  are  exposed  in  the 
living  body,  must  be  able  to  bear  compression,  extension, 
and  twisting,  without  either  bending  or  breaking ;  for  that 
purpose  they  are  formed  of  two  materials — one  an  earthy 
substance,  which  is  chiefly  phosphate  of  lime,  to  give  so- 
lidity and  hardness  ;  the  other  an  animal  substance,  resem- 


300  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XLVH. 

bling  glue  or  gelatine,  to  impart  toughness ;  if  a  K-ne  is 
slightly  burnt  in  the  fire,  the  gelatine  is  charred,  and  it 
becomes  black ;  when  exposed  to  a  red  heat  in  the  open 
air  for  a  longer  time,  the  animal  matter  is  entirely  burnt 
away,  and  the  white  earthy  phosphate  of  lime  alone  re- 
mains ;  this  retains  the  form  of  the  bone,  but  is  exceed- 
ingly brittle,  from  the  destruction  of  the  gelatine ;  by 
soaking  a  bone  in  diluted  acid  for  a  considerable  time,  the 
earthy  matter  may  be  removed,  leaving  the  gelatine  in  the 
form  of  a  flexible  gristle.  The  composition  of  bone  may 
be  stated  generally  as — 

Organic  matter,  chiefly  gelatine,  .         .         .  40  purts. 

Phosphate  of  lime, 50     " 

Carbonate  of  lime  (chalk),  ...  8      " 

Other  mineral  materials,  .        .         .        .  2     *' 

100 

The  uses  of  the  framework  of  bones  to  the  animal  may 
be  arranged  under  three  divisions  : — 1st,  by  their  hardness 
and  firmness  they  give  support  and  a  fixed  shape  to  the 
body.  2d,  they  enclose  and  protect  delicate  and  important 
organs  from  external  injury, — thus,  the  bones  of  the  skull 
protect  the  brain,  those  of  the  chest  the  heart  and  lungs. 
3d,  they  give  firmness  to  the  limbs,  and  at  the  joints,  where 
they  are  connected  together,  admit  of  motion  ;  those  parts 
of  the  bones  that  rub  over  each  other  during  the  move- 
ments of  the  limbs,  are  covered  with  a  very  smooth  gristle 
or  cartilage,  and  are  moistened  by  an  unctuous  fluid. 

As  the  same  quantity  of  material  makes  a  stronger 
column  when  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  tube  than 


BONES.  301 

as  a  solid  cylinder,  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs  are  formed 
into  hollow  tubes,  the  cavity  being,  in  terrestrial  animals, 
filled  with  an  oily  fluid,  which  hardens,  when  cold,  into 
marrow, — and  in  birds,  with  air ;  this,  when  heated  by 
the  warmth  of  the  animal,  has  a  tendency  to  render  it 
lighter. 

Uses  to  Man. — Bones  are  a  very  important  article  of 
commerce.  After  having  been  boiled  to  extract  the 
grease,  which  is  used  in  soap  and  candle  making,  the 
larger  kinds,  termed  shank  bones,  of  which  2,000,000  are 
used  annually  at  SheflSeld,  are  employed  for  knife  handles, 
tooth  and  nail  brushes,  combs,  paper  knives,  spoons ;  the 
smaller  for  buttons,  and  a  variety  of  small  articles ;  the 
shavino;s  and  sawdust  formed  in  makins;  these  articles  are 
used  either  as  manure  or  for  size-making.  Heated  in  closed 
iron  vessels,  bones  turn  black ;  in  this  state  they  are 
termed  animal  charcoal,  or  bone  black,  an  article  much 
used  in  clarifying  sugar. 

One  great  use  of  bones,  is  as  manure,  especially  in 
England ;  for  this  purpose  they  are  collected  from  every 
part  of  the  island,  and  even  from  the  Continent,  and 
crushed,  either  coarsely,  or  into  a  fine  powder ;  in  either 
state  the  farmer  scatters  them  over  his  land,  or  sows  a 
quantity  with  his  seed.  When  acted  upon  by  oil  of  vit- 
riol, or  sulphuric  acid,  they  furnish  a  valuable  manure, 
known  under  the  name  of  superphosphate  of  lime. 

The  earthy  matter  of  bones  contains  a  large  portion 
of  phosphorus,  which,  when  extracted  by  chemical  pro- 
cesses, is  used  extensively  for  the  manufacture  of  matches. 

About  70,000  tons  of  bone  are  annually  imported  into 


302  FIFTH   STEP. LESSON   XLVm. 

England ;  about  one  third  of  this  large  quantity  comes 
from  the  cattle  feeding  plains  of  South  America,  and  about 
one  fifth  from  Russia. 


LESSON    XLVIII. 

FEATHERS. 

Natural  JTistory.—Yesiihevs  are  the  substances  that 
form  the  clothing  or  natural  covering  of  birds.  The 
habits  and  movements  of  these  animals  are  so  peculiar  as 
to  require  in  their  clothing  a  very  unusual  combination  of 
qualities  j  it  must  be  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  natural  warmth  of  the  animal, 
under  all  circumstances,  whether  in  the  water  or  in  the 
cold  upper  regions  of  the  air,  or  in  winter.  It  is  neces- 
sary also  that  it  should  be  exceedingly  light,  for,  if  heavy, 
it  would  render  flight  impracticable ;  a  striking  example 
of  the  extreme  lightness  of  a  bird's  plumage  is  afforded  by 
the  fact,  that  all  the  feathers  of  the  common  owl  (a  bird 
very  abundantly  clothed)  weigh  only  one  ounce  and  a  half; 
this  lightness  must,  nevertheless,  in  the  feathers  of  the 
wings,  be  combined  with  great  strength,  as  these  parts  are 
forcibly  struck  against  the  air,  in  the  act  of  flying.  The 
whole  covering  must  be  flexible,  to  permit  the  varied 
movements  of  the  animal,  and  sufficiently  smooth  to  offer 
the  least  possible  resistance  to  the  rapid  passage  of  the 
bird  through  the  air  ;  and,  lastly,  the  entire  covering  must, 
in  many  instances,  be  waterproof 

On    examination  we   shall   find   that  these  apparently 


FEATHERS.  303 

opposite  qualities  of  warmth,  lightness,  strength,  flexibility, 
smoothness,  and  the  power  of  resisting  the  entrance  of 
water,  are  combined  in  the  covering  of  birds  in  a  manner 
which  most  strongly  proclaims  the  wisdom  and  beneficence 
of  the  Creator,  who  has  declared  that  without  Him  "  not 
even  a  sparrow  falleth  to  the  ground."  A  feather  consists 
of  three  parts — a  quill  or  barrel,  a  shaft,  and  a  vane  or 
beard ;  the  quill  is  that  part  of  the  feather  by  which  it  is 
attached  to  the  body  of  the  bird  ;  it  is  formed  of  a  horny 
substance,  of  a  hard  and  elastic  nature,  remarkably  strong 
and  light ;  this  lightness  is  given  by  its  being  formed  in  the 
shape  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  which  is  filled  with  air ;  it  is 
hollow  for  the  same  reason  that  the  bones  are  hollow,  that 
is,  to  ensure  strength  with  the  least  possible  w^eight.  That 
the  quill  may  also  possess  strength  in  every  direction,  it  is 
formed  of  two  sets  of  fibres,  (though,  from  their  being 
transparent,  this  is  not  readily  seen)  ;  one  set  runs  in  the 
direction  of  the  length  of  the  quill ;  it  is  this  set  that  is 
torn  apart  (not  across)  when  a  quill  is  split  to  make  a  pen  ; 
the  other  fibres  are  circular,  and  run  round  the  former, 
binding  them  together ;  if  this  circular  set  is  not  scraped 
off  before  making  a  pen,  the  slit  is  jagged,  in  consequence 
of  their  being  torn  across. 

The  membranous  substance  found  within  the  quill  is 
the  dried  remains  of  the  blood  vessels  by  which  the  feather 
was  nourished  during  its  growth. 

The  shaft  of  the  feather  is  four  sided ;  it  is  largest  near 
the  quill,  and  gradually  lessens  in  size  to  the  end ;  it  is 
slightly  bent,  to  adapt  it  to  the  shape  of  the  bird,  covered 
with  a  horny  substance  like  that  of  the  quill,  but  not  so 


304  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   XLVIIL 

thick,  and  filled  with  a  light  elastic  substance  resembling 
pith. 

The  vane  or  beard  of  the  feather  is  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  flat  barbs  or  pieces,  which  grow  from  the  sides  of 
the  shaft ;  these  are  placed  with  their  flat  sides  toward 
each  other,  their  edges  being  turned  upward  and  down- 
ward ;  this  method  of  placing  them  is  the  strongest  that 
could  be  adopted,  as  it  is  these  edges  that  strike  the  air 
during  flight. 

In  an  unruffled  feather  the  barbs  or  pieces  of  the  vane 
are  united  together,  and  cannet  easily  be  parted ;  it  is  evi- 
dent, however,  that  they  do  not  adhere  by  any  adhesive 
matter,  or  the  feather  would  feel  clammy ;  if  these  barbs 
are  ruffled,  they  reunite  when  the  feather  is  smoothed  from 
the  quill  toward  the  end.  This  reunion  is  effected  by  the 
following  beautiful  contrivance : — Every  barb  has  a  row  of 
very  minute  hooks  on  each  side ;  those  on  the  side  nearest 
the  quill  turn  their  points  upward,  those  on  the  other  side 
downward ;  these  all  hook  in  one  another,  and  hold  the 
barbs  together ;  when  the  feather  is  ruffled  by  any  force, 
these  elastic  hooks  are  stretched  apart  without  being  bro- 
ken, and  so  exquisitely  perfect  is  their  adaptation  to  each 
other,  that  on  being  brought  together,  either  by  smooth- 
ing the  feather  upward  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  or 
by  the  bird  preening  them  with  its  bill,  they  reunite  ;  this 
exquisite  contrivance  enables  the  bird  to  keep  the  vanes  of 
the  feathers,  particularly  those  of  the  wings  and  tail,  in  the 
best  possible  condition  for  resisting  the  air  in  flight.  That 
part  of  the  vane  nearest  the  quill  is  often  formed  of  softer 
barbs  wilhout  hooks ;  this  downy  portion,  when  the  feather 


FEATHERS.  305 

is  in  its  natural  situation,  is  next  the  skin  of  the  bird,  and 
serves  to  keep  the  body  warm.  Many  birds  are,  in  addi- 
tion, furnished  with  down  growing  from  the  skin,  so  as  to 
form  a  warm  under  clothing,  the  delicate  and  elastic  fila- 
ments of  which  are  not  hooked  together  like  the  barbs 
of  feathers,  but  remain  separate.  Down  is  most  abun- 
dant under  the  feathers  of  swimming  birds,  where  it  is  re- 
quisite to  prevent  the  water  from  abstracting  the  heat  of 
their  bodies;  and  it  is  much  more  abundant  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  than  elsewhere.  The  down  of  these 
birds  is  never  wet,  the  close  oily  layer  of  feathers  protect- 
ing it  from  the  water.  Some  water  birds,  as  the  goose, 
pluck  the  down  from  their  breasts  to  line  their  nests. 

Feathers  are  often  modified  so  as  to  suit  the  wants  of 
the  particular  species  of  bird.  Thus  birds  of  prey,  as 
hawks  and  eagles,  have  hard,  firm  feathers,  extremely 
strong  and  elastic.  Owls  have  soft,  downy  feathers,  so 
that  they  fly  silently  at  night,  and  surprise  their  prey.  In 
the  ostrich,  and  other  birds  that  do  not  fly,  the  barbs  are 
not  joined  by  hooks,  but  are  loose  and  flowing.  Swimming 
birds  have  their  feathers  close  and  oily,  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  water. 

Uses  to  Man. — ^The  coverings  of  birds  are  of  great  use 
to  man,  and  form  articles  of  commerce,  under  the  names 
of  quills,  feathers,  and  down. 

Quills  are  chiefly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  writing" 
pens,  and  are  generally  obtained  from  wings  of  geese^ 
which,  at  stated  times,  are  partially  deprived  of  their  quillf 
and  feathers.  The  quills,  when  pulled  from  the  animals, 
are  sorted  according  to  their  size  and  quality ;  the  smallest 


300  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    XLIX. 

are  sold  under  the  name  of  pinions.  Before  they  are  sold 
for  use,  quills  are  sometimes  stained  yellow.  In  1855, 
nearly  twenty-seven  millions  of  foreign  swan  and  goose 
quills  were  imported  into  England,  valued  at  about 
30,000^. 

Feathers  are  used  in  this  country  for  stuffing  beds,  bol- 
sters, and  pillows,  &q.  The  most  valued  are  obtained  from 
geese,  the  inferior  kinds  from  ducks,  fowls,  and  other  poul- 
try. Ornamental  and  colored  feathers,  as  those  of  the  os- 
trich, bird  of  paradise  tails,  the  domestic  cock,  &c.,  &c., 
are  much  employed  in  personal  decoration. 

Down  is  used  in  two  states,  either  removed  from  the 
skin  of  the  animal  for  stuffing  pillows,  quilts,  and  other 
substances,  or  attached  to  the  skin  for  making  tippets,  &c., 
in  the  same  manner  as  fur. 

LESSON  XLIX. 

GLUE. 

Manufacture  ana  Uses. — Glue  is  an  impure  variety  of 
the  animal  substance  known  as  gelatine.  It  is  much  used 
by  carpenters,  and  in  the  variojis  arts,  as  a  strong  cement. 
The  best  is  obtained  from  the  skins  of  animals,  the  small 
cuttings  rejected  by  the  currier  being  generally  employed; 
an  inferior  kind  is  made  from  the  sinews  and  hoofs  of 
horses  and  other  animals. 

These  materials  are  first  well  steeped  in  lime  water, 
which  assists  in  removing  any  grease  ;  they  are  then  boiled 
in  water  until  all  the  soluble  parts  are  dissolved ;  the  im- 
purities that  rise  to  the  surface  are  skimmed  off;  the  liquor 


GLUE.  30? 

/s  then  strained,  to  separate  the  undissolved  pieces  of  skin, 
and  again  boiled  down  until  it  becomes  on  cooling  a  very 
firm,  hard  jelly.  This  jelly  is  cut  into  thin,  flat,  square 
pieces,  which  are  dried  upon  coarse  netting.  The 
depressions  left  by  the  network  are  visible  on  the  dried 
glue. 

When  of  a  good  quality,  glue  is  of  a  rich  brown  color, 
semi-transparent,  and  without  spots  or  clouds  in  its  inte- 
rior ;  it  should  be  perfectly  soluble  in  hot  water,  not  leav- 
ing any  sediment.  The  solution  of  glue  in  water  is,  when 
cold,  a  jelly-hke  mass,  which  varies  in  firmness  according  to 
the  quantity  of  glue  dissolved ;  even  when  made  very  firm 
it  readily  melts  with  heat,  and  in  this  state  is  used  as  a 
cement,  being  applied  while  hot  to  the  substances  which  it 
is  wished  to  unite  ;  they  are  pressed  together,  and  as  the 
glue  becomes  firm  on  cooUng,  remain  cemented,  although 
it  is  not  till  after  some  days  (when  the  glue  has  become 
perfectly  dry)  that  the  joint  is  very  firm. 

The  use  of  glue  depends  on  its  being  readily  soluble  in 
hot  w^ater,  its  adhesiveness  when  dissolved,  and  upon  its 
becoming  hard  as  it  cools  and  dries.  Its  tenacity  when 
used  as  a  cement  is  very  great ;  frequently  the  wood  work 
joined  by  it  will  break  at  some  other  place,  and  not  at  that 
at  which  it  is  cemented.  From  its  solubility  in  water,  glue 
is  useless  in  damp  situations. 

To  prevent  the  glue  from  being  burnt  in  heating,  it  is 
dissolved  in  a  glue-pot,  consisting  of  two  vessels,  one  placed 
within  the  other.  The  outer  one,  which  is  much  the  larger, 
is  partly  filled  with  water,  while  in  the  inner  one  the  glue 
to  be  dissolved  is  placed.     By  this  arrangement  the  glue 


308  FlFl'H    STEP. — LESSON   L. 

cannot  be  overheated  as  long  as  any  water  remains  in  tho 
outer  vessel. 

The  workmen  using  glue  are  chiefly  joiners  and  cabinet 
makers ;  a  weak  solution,  termed  size,  which  is  usually  ob- 
tained by  boiling  down  the  clippings  of  parchment,  glove 
leather,  <fec.,  is  mixed  with  whitewash,  to  prevent  its  being 
readily  rubbed  off  when  dry. 

Isinglass,  so  much  used  for  making  jellies,  &c.,  &c.,  is  9, 
purer  kind  of  glue  obtained  from  the  air-bladders  or  sounds 
of  the  sturgeon,  and  several  kinds  of  fish  ;  a  variety  of  glue 
obtained  from  the  skins  of  animals  is  sold  under  the  name 
of  gelati7ie^  and  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

LESSON  L. 

HORN. 

Description. — ^The  substance  known  as  horn  is  obtame  ^ 
from  many  ruminating  animals,  as  the  ox,  the  goat,  th^ 
sheep,  and  the  antelope  ;  the  term  horn  is  often  applied  to 
the  antlers  of  animals  of  the  stag  or  deer  tribe,  but  erro- 
neously, as  they  consist,  not  of  horn,  but  of  solid  bone,  are 
generally  branched,  and  are  shed  annually,  while  true  horns 
are  permanent.  The  horns  of  the  ox,  &c.,  are  of  a  conical 
form,  and  generally  somewhat  curved  ;  they  have  a  bony 
core  in  the  centre,  which  takes  its  rise  from  the  bone  of  the 
forehead  ;  this  core  is  supplied  with  nerves,  and  also  with 
vessels,  by  which  nourishment  is  conveyed  to  the  horny 
portion  that  surrounds  it  like  a  sheath. 

The  outside  horn,  like  the  nails  of  the  fingers,  is  quite 
insensible ;  the  tip  may  be  cut  off  without  giving  pain  ;  if, 


HORN.  30d 

however,  the  bony  core  is  injured,  it  bleeds  freely,  and  the 
animal  suffers  pain.  The  chief  difference  between  horn  and 
bone  arises  from  the  former  being  destitute  of  earthy  mat- 
ter ;  hence  its  semi-transparency. 

The  horns  used  in  the  arts  are  obtained  from  various 
animals  of  the  ox  tribe,  and  are  imported  in  large  numbers 
from  Russia,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  South  America,  &c. 

Preparation  and  Uses, — Horns  are  prepared  by  first 
soaking  them  in  water  for  five  or  six  weeks ;  this  loosens 
the  core  and  permits  its  removal ;  the  solid  part  of  the 
horn,  near  the  tip,  is  then  cut  off,  and  used  in  making 
knife  handles,  buttons,  &c. ;  the  remainder  is  softened  by 
boiling  water  and  exposure  to  heat ;  in  this  state  it  is  pre- 
pared for  use  by  being  split  up  with  a  knife,  and  pressed 
flat  between  hot  iron  plates.  If  required  in  thin  sheets,  it 
is  split  into  layers,  smoothed  by  scraping,  and  afterward 
polished. 

When  prepared  for  combs,  the  horn  is  pressed,  and  made 
into  the  required  shape  by  a  saw  and  rasps.  If  a  very 
large  piece  of  horn  is  required  for  a  comb,  or  any  other 
article,  two  pieces  are  joined  together  by  heating  the  edges 
until  they  are  quite  soft,  and  keeping  them  pressed  togeth- 
er firmly  until  cold. 

Drinking  cups  are  formed  by  moulding  the  hollow  part 
of  the  horn  (softened  by  heat)  into  a  regular  shape — it  is 
then  polished.  A  deep  groove  is  afterward  cut  or  turned 
near  the  bottom  ;  the  cup  is  again  softened  by  heat,  and  a 
flat  piece  of  horn,  of  the  proper  size,  forced  into  the 
groove.  The  horn  contracts  as  it  cools,  and  the  joint  is 
perfectly  water-tight. 


310  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    LI. 

Horns  were  anciently  used  in  making  the  musical  in- 
struments so  called,  and  the  name  still  remains ;  hence  we 
have  the  bugle  horn,  &c.,  though  they  are  now  made  of 
brass  and  other  materials. 

The  waste  from  buffalo  and  ox  horns  is  of  some  value, 
being  either  used  as  manure,  or  in  the  manufacture  of 
Prussian  blue. 

The  hoofs  of  the  ox  consist  of  a  material  similar  to  that 
forming  the  horn,  and  they  are  extensively  employed  for 
making  buttons  and  ladies'  side  combs.  At  one  comb 
manufactory  near  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  eighty  tons  of 
hoofs  are  stated  to  be  used  for  the  latter  purpose.; 


LESSON     LI. 

HORSE    HAIR. 

Description. — The  horse  hair  used  in  the  arts  is  in  gen- 
eral obtained  from  the  tail  and  mane  of  horses. 

The  long  hair  of  the  tail  is  woven  into  a  kind  of 
coarse  cloth  for  sieves,  also  into  a  fabric  for  covering 
chairs,  sofas,  &c. ;  in  the  latterxjase  the  horse  hair  runs  in 
one  direction  only,  and  threads  of  flax  or  hemp  in  the 
other,  sufficiently  firm  and  strong  to  give  great  strength 
to  the  whole.  The  long  hairs  are  also  used  to  form  fishing 
lines,  violin  bows,  <fec. 

The  shorter  hair  is  usually  curly ;  it  is  generally  sold 
in  commerce  twisted  into  cords,  which  are  afterward 
picked  open,  and  the  hair  used  for  stuffing  mattresses, 
chairs,  sofas,  <fec.     To   fit  it  for  this  purpose  it  is  baked 


IVORY.  311 

with  a  gentle  beat,  by  wbich  its  elasticity  is  much  in- 
creased. The  short  hair  of  the  mane  is  also  used  for 
stuffing  horse  collars,  and  other  inferior  work.  Much  of 
the  hair  used  in  manufactures  is  imported  from  South 
America. 

LESSON^  LII. 

IVOEY. 

Natural  History. — Ivory  is  the  bard,  bony  substance 
foi-raing  the  tusks  of  several  animals,  as  the  elephant,  hip- 
popotamus, walrus,  and  spermaceti  whale.  The  chief  and 
best  supply  of  elephant  ivory  comes  from  Africa.  Large 
quantities  are  obtained  also  from  immense  collections  of 
bones  and  tusks  of  extinct  species  of  mammoths  and  ele- 
phants, which  are  found  in  the  banks  of  the  northern  riv- 
ers of  Siberia.  Some  of  these  tusks  were  ten  feet  long, 
and  weighed  186  lbs.  each.  The  tusks  found  in  Africa 
occasionally  weigh  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds,  but  do 
not  average  quite  twenty  pounds  each.  At  the  low  esti- 
mate of  30^.  per  cwt ,  the  total  value  of  the  ivory  imported 
into  England,  is  nearly  300,000^.  yearly,  and  above  20,000 
elephants  are  annually  slaughtered  to  yield  this  supply. 
Elephant  ivory  is  a  white,  translucent  substance,  mainly 
composed  of  the  same  materials  as  bone,  possessing  a  very 
fine,  close  texture,  in  which  may  be  observed  a  diamond- 
shaped  network,  caused  by  curved  lines  interlacing  each 
other  with  great  regularity  and  beauty,  and  giving  rise  to 
a  pattern  resembling  the  engine  turning  of  a  watch,  ex 
tremely  hard,  yet  slightly  compressible  by  great  force,  and 


812  FIFTH    STEP.— LESSON   LIII. 

elastic.     Cut  into  thin  layers  it  has  a  greater  degree  of 
transparency  than  paper  of  the  same  thickness. 

Uses  to  Man. — The  semi-transparency  and  whiteness 
of  ivory,  together  with  its  fine,  even  surface,  render  it  the 
best  known  substance  for  the  groundwork  of  small  delicate 
paintings,  such  as  miniatures ;  it  is  also  employed  by  the 
turner  for  various  articles,  as  well  on  account  of  its  beauty 
and  hardness,  as  from  its  being  less  liable  to  crack  than 
bone.  The  keys  of  pianofortes,  knife  handles,  chess  men, 
surgical  and  mathematical  instruments,  and  toys  are  made 
from  it.  The  ancients  esteemed  it  highly  as  a  material  for , 
sculpture,  and  it  is  still  used  by  the  carver  jfor  small 
figures  and  or'namental  devices. 

LESSON  LIII. 

LEATHER. 

Manufacture  and  Uses. — Leather  is  a  substance  uni- 
versally used  among  civilized,  and  very  generally  among 
barbarous  nations ;  it  is  made  from  the  skins  of  animals, 
which  are  tanned  or  prepared  with  some  substance  having 
the  power  of  converting  the  ^rishable  skin,  that  decays 
readily  when  wet  or  moist,  into  a  lasting  and  comparatively 
imperishable  leather.  Several  tanning  substances  are  em- 
ployed, according  to  the  kind  of  leather  required ;  that  for 
the  soles  and  upper  leathers  of  shoes,  for  harness,  and  sim- 
lar  purposes,  is  tanned  with  the  aid  of  oak  bark.  The 
hides  or  skins,  either  fresh,  as  received  from  the  butcher, 
or  salted,  as  they  are  brought  from  abroad,  are  first  scraped 
to  remove  any  pieces  of  flesh  or  fat  that  may  remain  at- 


l-KATHER.  313 

tached  to  the  inside,  and  are  then  soaked  in  a  mixture  of 
lime  and  water,  by  which  means  the  hair  is  loosened,  and 
can  be  readily  scraped  off.  Thus  cleansed  from  the  hair 
and  flesh,  they  are  again  soaked  for  some  days  in  an  acid 
liquid,  made  by  putting  barley  or  rye  flour  into  water  and 
letting  it  remain  till  it  becomes  sour,  or  by  adding  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol ;  this  acid  solution  has  the  effect 
of  opening  the  pores  of  the  skin,  so  that  the  tan  can  after- 
ward penetrate  more  readily.  The  hide  is  then  placed  in 
the  tan-pit  with  oak  bark  and  water ;  first  in  a  weak,  and 
afterward  in  a  strong  solution.  The  process  of  manufactu- 
ring skin  into  leather  is  a  very  slow  one ;  to  make  strong 
and  well-tanned  leather  the  hides  should  remain  in  the  pits 
from  six  to  twelve,  or  even  eighteen  months  ;  if  taken  out 
too  soon,  the  middle  of  the  skin  is  not  well  tanned.  The 
hides  when  removed  are  dried,  and  finally  passed  between 
rollers,  to  give  them  a  smooth  surface  and  render  them 
firm. 

By  these  processes  the  skin  is  much  altered  in  its  prop- 
erties ;  when  taken  from  the  animal  it  is  soft  and  moist, 
and,  when  dry,  brittle,  and  liable  to  crack ;  it  is  also  very 
perishable,  and  putrefies  rapidly  if  kept  wet ;  these  qualities 
render  untanned  skins  of  little  use.  Leather,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  flexible  and  sofi,  whether  wet  or  dry ;  it  is  also,  if 
properly  prepared,  waterproof  and  lasting;  at  the  same 
time  it  is  light,  and  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  much 
wear  when  made  into  shoes,  harness,  &c. 

There  is  a  mode  of  tanning  by  steam,  called  the  "  hot 
process,"  by  which  the  leather  is  produced  more  rapidly 
and  cheaply,  but  it  is  of  very  inferior  quality. 
14 


314  FIPTH   STEP. — LESSON   LUI. 

The  leather  required  for  the  upper  parts  of  boots  and 
shoes  is  prepared  by  the  currier,  who,  by  paring  and  rub- 
bing, renders  it  thinner,  more  flexible,  softer,  and  capable 
of  taking  a  polish ;  at  the  same  time  he  blackens  it  with 
lampblack,  and  oil  or  tallow.  The  skins  used  for  upper 
leathers  are  calf,  and  the  thinner  skins  of  cows  and  horses ; 
while  the  thicker  skins,  and  those  of  oxen,  &c.,  are  used  for 
the  soles.  These  skins  are  imported  mostly  from  South 
America  and  Calcutta. 

The  numerous  kinds  of  leather,  required  for  different 
purposes,  are  made  by  slight  variations  in  the  process. 

Morocco  leather,  for  example,  is  prepared  from  goat 
skins,  which  are  mainly  imported  from  Switzerland  and 
Mexico.  The  flesh  and  hair  are  scraped  ofl"  as  before  de- 
scribed ;  each  skin  is  then  sewed  up  in  the  form  of  a  bag, 
which  is  filled  with  water  and  a  vegetable  substance  termed 
sumach  ;  this  substance,  like  the  oak  bark,  is  astringent, 
and  has  the  effect  of  tanning  these  skins  in  a  few  hours ; 
they  are  then  dyed,  and  rubbed  with  a  grooved  ball,  in 
order  to  give  them  the  ribbed  appearance  which  distin- 
guishes morocco  leather  ;  imitation,  or  inferior  morocco,  is 
manufictured  from  sheep  skins.  Morocco  leather  is  soft 
and  very  flexible,  while  its  grooved  appearance  renders  it 
ornamental.  It  is  frequently  used  for  coveiing  books  and 
chairs,  lining  carriages,  &c. 

A  very  strong  leather  is  made  from  seal  skins,  and  is 
used  for  the  tops  of  riding  and  hunting  boots.  In  Loui- 
siana the  manufacture  of  heather  from  alligator  skins  was 
commenced  some  years  since,  and  more  recently  a  new 
source  of  leather  has  been  found  in  the  skin  of  the  white 


LEATHER.  315 

whale,  which  is  found  in  the  rivers  emptying  into  Hudson's 
Bay. 

The  leather  which,  from  its  softness  and  power  of 
stretching,  is  usually  selected  for  gloves  and  ladies'  shoes, 
though  called  kid,  is  mainly  prepared  from  the  skins  of 
Iambs.  It  is  tanned  with  alum,  and,  to  render  it  as  soft 
and  yielding  as  possible,  eggs  and  flour  are  used  during 
the  process. 

Wash,  or  chamois  leather,  is  prepared  by  cleansing  the 
skins  with  lime  ;  they  are  then  dried ;  afterward,  they  are 
beaten  with  heavy  hammers,  while  kept  wet  with  oil ; 
again  hung  up  to  dry,  and  again  beaten  with  the  addition 
of  fresh  oil ;  this  operation  is  many  times  repeated  ;  lastly, 
the  surplus  oil  is  removed  by  soaking  the  skin  in  water 
containing  pearlash ;  it  is  ultimately  dried,  and  it  is  then  fit 
for  use.  Being  very  soft,  wash  leather  is  much  employed 
for  polishing  metal  articles ;  and  from  its  warmth  and 
softness,  it  is  made  into  under  waistcoats,  &c. ;  it  does 
not  resist  the  wet,  and  is,  therefore,  unfit  for  outer 
clothing. 

Sheep  skins  are  split  by  a  machine  so  as  to  form  a 
cheap  kind  of  leather  termed  skiver,  which  is  largely  used 
for  pocketbooks,  hat  linings,  common  bookbinding,  and 
similar  purposes.  At  the  present  time  the  skins  of  the 
larger  animals  are  split ;  the  outer  side  being  employed  as 
a  substitute  for  morocco  leather,  and  the  inner  for  inferior 
purposes. 


316  FIFTH    STEP. — ^LESSON  UV. 


LESSON  LIV. 

SOAP. 

Manufacture, — All  the  various  hard  soaps  are  prepared 
from  different  kinds  of  fat  or  oil,  and  the  alkali,  soda.  It 
is  necessary,  however,  that  the  common  soda  should  be 
rendered  much  more  caustic  than  it  is  in  its  usual  state; 
this  is  done  by  boiling  it  with  fresh  burnt  lime,  which,  act- 
ing chemically  on  the  soda,  greatly  increases  its  caustic 
powers.  The  soda  thus  prepared  and  dissolved  in  water 
forms  what  is  termed  the  lye  or  ley  of  the  soap  boiler. 

White  hard  soap  is  manufactured  in  the  following  man- 
ner : — Into  an  iron  vessel,  heated  by  steam,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fatty  material  is  placed  ;  into  this  a  quantity  of  the 
ley  is  poured.  The  mixture  is  boiled  for  some  time,  and 
fiequently  stirred,  during  which  time  the  tallow  unites  with 
the  soda  of  the  ley,  and  forms  a  viscid  liquid  ;  a  strong  so- 
lution of  salt  is  then  added,  which  causes  the  immediate 
separation  of  the  water  and  the  ley ;  this  is  pumped  away, 
and  a  stronger  ley  being  added;  the  operations  are  repeat- 
ed until  the  whole  of  the  grease  is  converted  into  soap. 
It  is  now  submitted  to  another  process  called  "  fitting," 
which  consists  in  boiling  it  in  weak  ley  or  water  until  the 
impurities  settle  to  the  bottom.  The  contents  of  the  boiler 
are  then  left  to  cool  and  settle  for  two  or  three  days.  In 
order  to  harden  the  soap  it  is  removed  from  the  boiler  and 
poured  into  large  pans ;  when  cold  it  becomes  a  solid  mass, 
which  is  cut  up  by  wires  into  bars. 


SOAP.  317 

When  scented  and  cast  in  small  cakes,  it  is  sold  as 
Windsor  soap. 

Yellow  soap  is  made  in  the  same  way,  with  the  addition 
of  a  portion  of  resin,  which  gives  the  peculiar  smell  and 
bitter  taste  by  which  it  is  distinguished,  but  it  adds  to  its 
solubility,  and  to  its  power  of  forming  a  lather  in  water. 

Fancy  or  toilet  soaps  are  prepared  from  a  great  variety 
of  materials,  as  palm,  olive,  castor,  and  spermaceti  oils, 
mutton  tallow,  and  lard.  The  well  known  Castile  soap  is 
made  with  olive  oil  and  soda,  while  the  Windsor  soap  re- 
quires mutton  tallow. 

Soaps  are  colored  by  mixing  mineral  paints  into  the 
melted  mass,  as  vermilion  for  pink,  ochres  for  the  brown, 
&c. 

In  marbling  fancy  soaps,  the  paint  is  mixed  with  olive 
oil  or  soap,  and  a  small  portion,  taken  up  on  a  palette  knife, 
is  moved  about  in  the  melted  mass. 

All  the  various  soaps  are  soluble  in  water,  forming 
semi-transparent  solutions  ;  when  moist  or  dissolved,  soap 
has  a  peculiar  feeling,  distinguished  by  the  term  soapy. 
The  great  use  of  soap  depends  upon  its  solubility,  and 
upon  its  power  of  rendering  grease  and  dirt  soluble  in 
water,  without  exerting  any  corrosive  action ;  a  weak  so- 
lution of  caustic  alkali  would  act  more  powerfully  in 
cleansing,  but  at  the  same  time  it  would,  like  the  wash- 
ing powders  in  general  use,  destroy  or  materially  injure 
the  linen  and  other  fabrics  with  which  it  might  be 
brought  in  contact. 

Soap  is  sometimes  found  as  a  natural  product.  In  Cal- 
ifornia a  small  shrub  grows  abundantly  which  is  generally 


318  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  LV.  ' 

nsed  for  soap,  and  is  even  preferred  to  the  artificial  variety. 

The  bulbous  root  of  this  plant  is  dug  up,  stripped  of  its 
husks,  and  rubbed  upon  the  clothes  in  the  water.  Several 
other  plants  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
which  serve  the  same  purpose. 

LESSON  LV. 

SPONGE. 

N'atural  History. — Sponges  are  animal  substances, 
which  are  found  in  marine  and  fresh  waters  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  The  two  principal  varieties'  met  with 
in  commerce  are  known  as  Turkey  and  West  Indian,  the 
former  coming  from  the  Mediterranean,  the  latter,  which 
is  much  coarser,  from  the  Bahamas  Banks  and  coast  of 
Florida.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Greek  Islands,  from 
whence  the  best  sponges  are  obtained,  are  trained  to  dive 
for  sponge  from  their  childhood  ; — to  quicken  their  de- 
scent they  use  a  large  heavy  stone,  which  is  attached  to 
the  boat  by  a  rope ;  they  seldom  remain  under  water  so 
loner  as  two  minutes  at  one  time.  Some  of  the  coarser 
kinds  of  sponge  are  obtained  by  dredging  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean.  Sponge  is  a  very  light,  soft,  compressible, 
highly  elastic  material ;  on  examination  with  a  microscope 
it  is  found  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  horny  elastic  fibres, 
which  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  infinite  number  of 
small  tubes  that  open  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  sponge, 
and  communicate  internally  with  larger  tubes  formed  in 
the  same  manner. 

During  the  life  of  the  animal  these  tubes  are  lined  with 


TOETOISE   SHELL.  319 

a  soft  gelatinous  flesh.  The  animal  has  the  power  of  caus- 
ing strong  currents  of  water  to  flow  out  of  the  larger  aper- 
tures, its  place  being  supplied  by  what  passes  in  through 
the  smaller  pores ;  this  action  is  always  going  on,  and 
while  the  water  is  so  passing,  the  requisite  food  is  with- 
drawn for  the  support  of  the  animal.  When  removed 
from  the  water  this  soft  flesh  drains  away,  the  elastic 
fibrous  framework  or  sponge  remaining.  In  some  varie- 
ties the  fibres  of  the  sponge  are  flinty  in  their  texture ; 
such  are,  of  course,  useless  in  an  economical  point  of  view. 
Uses. — The  use  of  sponge  as  a  material  for  washing, 
&c.,  depends  on  its  porosity  and  elasticity ;  the  first  quality 
enables  it  to  absorb  water  with  great  rapidity.  This  is 
readily  forced  out  by  pressure,  and  on  being  removed,  the 
elasticity  of  the  fibres  causes  the  sponge  to  resume  its 
former  size,  the  tubes  being  again  ready  to  receive  aL^ 
liquid  with  which  they  may  be  placed  in  contact. 


LESSOR      LYI. 

TORTOISE   SHELL. 

Natural  History. — The  tortoise  shell  of  commerce  is 
chiefly  obtained  from  the  back  shell  of  two  species  of  sea 
tortoises  or  turtles,  a  native  of  the  seas  of  the  torrid  zone, 
the  best  being  furnished  by  the  hawksbill  turtle.  As  in 
the  other  animals  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong,  these 
turtles  are  enclosed  in  a  bony  case  formed  underneath  by 
the  expanded  breastbone,  and  on  the  back  by  the  flattened 
vibs  and  spine  ;  on  the  latter  bony  arch  grow  the  scales  of 


320  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   LVI. 

tortoise  shell.  Five  large  scales,  or  "  plates,"  as  they  are 
termed,  are  taken  from  the  centre  of  each  shell,  and  four 
from  each  side;  there  are  also  twenty-five  small  ones  at 
the  edge.  These  plates  are  thick  in  proportion  to  the  size 
and  age  of  the  animal,  and  overlap  one  another  to  a  great 
extent. 

The  scales  are  removed  from  the  bony  arch  by  heating 
it  over  a  fire ;  this  process  loosens  them,  and  they  are 
easily  separated  by  a  knife.  The  value  of  the  rough  shell 
is  very  considerable,  the  best  being  worth  about  three 
guineas  a  pound.  It  is  frequently  injured  by  barnacles 
and  other  shell  fish,  which  fix  themselves  to  the  turtle 
while  alive. 

3Iam(facture  and  Uses. — Tortoise  shell  is  manufactured 
in  a  similar  manner  to  horn,  a  substance  which  it  closely 
resembles.  It  is  first  softened  by  boiling  in  salt  and  wa- 
ter, and  then  pressed  flat  until  cold  ;  it  is  rendered  smooth 
and  of  uniform  thickness  by  scraping  and  filing ;  and  if 
larger  pieces  are  required  than  can  be  obtained  from  sin- 
gle plates,  two  or  more  are  united  together.  The  pieces 
to  be  joined  are  sloped  oflT  to  the  distance  of  about  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  from  the  edge.  TJie  margins  are  so  placed 
as  to  overlap  one  another,  and,  after  being  pressed  togeth- 
er by  an  iron  clamp,  the  whole  is  placed  for  some  time  in 
boiling  water ;  by  this  means  the  two  pieces  become  so 
perfectly  united  that  the  joint  cannot  be  seen.  The  filings 
and  powder  of  the  various  processes  are  not  lost ;  they  are 
collected  and  placed  in  metal  moulds,  and  by  warmth  and 
pressure  are  formed  into  any  shape  that  may  be  desired. 
As  heat  darkens  the  tortoise  shell,  and  greatly  lessens  its 


WHALEBONE.  521 

beauty,  it  is  usually  cut  into  the  required  patterns  by  drills 
and  saws,  and  not  moulded  like  horn. 

In  making  combs,  in  order  to  economize  the  shell,  two 
are  often  formed  out  of  one  piece ;  the  teeth  of  one  being 
cut  out  of  the  spaces  between  those  of  the  other.  Besides 
its  use  for  combs,  boxes,  &c.,  tortoise  shell  is  used  for  in- 
laying and  ornamenting  tables,  cabinets,  &g.  :  for  this  pur- 
pose it  is  cut  into  thin  sheets,  and  a  bright  metal  is  placed 
beneath,  which,  shining  through  the  semi-transparent  shelly 
gives  the  article  a  very  ornamental  appearance. 

LESSON    LYII. 

WHALEBONE. 

Natural  History. — The  substance  termed  whalebone  is 
not,  as  its  name  might  seem  to  imply,  obtained  from  the 
bones  of  the  animal,  but  it  forms  a  substitute  for  teeth  in 
the  Greenland  whale,  and  some  other  species  that  nearly 
resemble  it. 

The  plates,  or  blades  of  ^vhalebone,  which  are  usually 
about  three  hundred  in  number  in  each  side,  are  arranged 
along  the  sides  of  the  upper  jaw,  occupying  the  usual  situ- 
tion  of  the  teeth  in  other  animals.  Each  plate  is  flat,  and 
they  are  ranged  with  these  flat  sides  parallel  to  each  other 
across  the  jaw.  The  edges  are  formed  of  coarse,  loose 
fibres,  and  are  turned  toward  the  inside  of  the  mouth,  so 
that  the  whole  together  form  a  sort  of  strainer,  the  lower 
part  of  which  is  received  into  the  hollow  of  the  large  and 
spoon-shaped  lower  jaw. 

This  apparatus  is  the  only  means  which  the  whale  pos- 
14* 


322  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   LVII. 

sesses  of  securing  its  food;  for  although  this  creature 
attains  the  immense  length  of  from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five 
feet,  and  a  girth  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  with  a  weight 
equalling  that  of  two  hundred  oxen,  it  feeds  entirely  on 
the  small  pulpy  animals  that  float  in  countless  multitudes 
in  the  water  of  the  Arctic  seas.  In  order  to  secure  these, 
it  swims  with  considerable  rapidity,  its  mouth  being  open ; 
the  water  rushes  in  at  the  fore  part,  where  there  are  no 
plates  of  whalebone,  and  passes  out  at  the  sides,  after 
having  been  strained  through  the  fringe  or  filter  of 
whalebone,  which  allows  the  water  to  escape,  but  retains 
the  food. 

The  length  of  the  blades  varies  considerably  with  the 
size  of  the  animals,  and  the  part  of  the  jaw  from  which 
they  are  taken;  the  longest  are  usually  about  ten  or 
eleven  feet,  and  the  quantity  obtained  from  a  full-sized 
whale  is  about  one  ton. 

The  surfaces  of  the  blades  are  formed  of  a  firm,  com- 
pact, fibrous  substance,  which  can  be  readily  split  in  the 
direction  of  its  length  ;  this  substance  is  tough,  strong, 
very  elastic,  and  capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish ;  the 
color  varies  from  black  to  a  dasky  gray  or  white.  Be- 
tween the  two  surfaces  or  sides  of  these  blades  there  is  a 
layer  of  coarse,  fibrous  material,  and,  as  before  stated,  the 
inside  edge  and  lower  end  of  each  blade  form  a  coarse, 
fibrous  fringe. 

Uses. — WhaleboTiC  is  prepared  by  boiling  it  for  some 
hours  in  water ;  thio  r^riders  it  soft,  and  more  readily  cut ; 
on  cooling,  it  becomes  harder  and  darker  than  before.  Its 
u«ea  greatly  depend  on  its  extreme  elasticity ;   split  into 


CORAL.  323 

fibres,  it  is  employed  in  the  place  of  bristles  for  making 
coarse  brooms  and  brushes  ;  it  is  also  used  in  large  quanti- 
ties for  the  stretchers  of  umbrellas  and  parasols ;  the  whiter 
pieces,  cut  into  thin  strips,  are  sometimes  platted  into  bon- 
nets, and,  after  having  been  dyed,  into  artificial  flowers  ;  it 
is  also  employed  for  stays,  brushes,  whip  handles,  canes, 
and  the  manufacture  of  hair  cloth.  The  waste  shavings 
are  employed  as  a  stuffing  material  for  upholsterers,  the 
refuse  going  to  the  farmers  for  manure. 

A  large  quantity  of  artificial  whalebone  is  now  used  for 
Umbrellas  and  parasols.  It  is  made  from  the  inner  portion 
of  the  common  cane,  which  is  steamed,  and  then  impreg- 
nated with  a  fluid  containing  shellac ;  this  renders  it  as 
elastic  as  whalebone. 

LESSON    LYIII. 

CORAL. 

Corals  are  the  secretions  made  by  one  of  the  lowest 
class  of  aniinals,  called  polypi,  inhabiting  the  deep ;  they 
sometimes  assume  the  forms  of  branches  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful appearance  ;  sometimes  they  resemble  beads  strung  in 
a  necklace,  while  others  present  a  more  consolidated  mass ; 
but  all  are  perforated  with  pores  more  or  less  minute, 
which  are  the  habitations  of  the  little  architects. 

Among  the  various  phenomena  of  the  natural  world, 
there  are  perhaps  none  more  calculated  to  excite  astonish- 
ment and  admiration  than  the  vast  coral  reefs  that  rise  up 
from  the  deep,  and  at  times  even  constitute  islands.  They 
are  produced  from  a  calcareous  matter  which  exudes  from 


324  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON  LVIH. 

the  coral  polyp,  and  hardening,  forms  at  once  its  habita- 
tion and  its  mausoleum.  This  creature  is  of  the  class  of 
zoophytes,  the  lowest  grade  of  animal  life,  the  link  be 
tween  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdom.  They  work 
only  under  water,  so  that  the  coral  reefs  never  rise  abova 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  when  the  tide  retires,  the  rock 
appears  dry,  compact,  rugged,  and  perforated  ;  but  when 
the  returning  waters  wash  its  sides,  a  most  interesting  spec- 
tacle of  active  life  is  presented,  countless  myriads  of  va- 
rious shapes  and  colors  protrude  themselves  from  the  ori- 
fices, and  the  whole  edifice  seems  teeming  with  life  and 
animation. 

The  coral  ceases  to  grow  in  height  when  the  polyp  is 
no  longer  exposed  to  the  washing  of  the  sea  ;  the  work  is 
then  commenced  at  the  sides,  and  other  parts  rise  in  suc- 
cession, till  they  reach  the  same  height,  and  form  a  level 
surface  at  the  top,  with  steep  precipitous  sides.  In  this 
manner,  and  by  such  insignificant  agents,  atom  deposited 
upon  atom,  the  solid  rock  is  at  length  produced  ;  upon  this 
the  sea  deposits  sand,  mud,  and  decayed  seaweed ;  these 
prepare  for  mosses  and  lichens,  which  in  their  turn  produce 
a  soil  for  more  perfect  vegetation ;  till  at  last  the  island 
thus  formed  becomes  a  fit  residence  for  man. 

As  these  rocks  are  constructed  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  they  present  no  beacon  to  warn  the  mariner  of 
their  existence,  and  thus  render  navigation  in  those  seas 
in  which  they  abound  exceedingly  dangerous. 


WAX    CANDLES.  S2A 

LESSON    LIX. 

WAX    CANDLES. 

Wax  candles  are  manufactured  from  two  kinds  of  wax 
■ — animal  and  vegetable.  Beeswax  is  a  substance  secreted 
by  bees  in  their  bodies,  and  of  which  they  construct  their 
cells.  For  the  methods  of  obtaining  the  wax,  see  the  les- 
son on  "  Beeswax." 

The  insect  wax  of  China  is  the  product  of  a  small 
white  insect,  which  deposits  it  upon  the  trees  on  which  it 
feeds. 

Of  the  vegetable  waxes,  the  Japanese,  the  palm  wax  of 
New  Granada,  and  the  myrtle  wax  of  the  United  States, 
are  the  principal.  Of  these  the  myrtle  or  barberry  wax  is 
used  most  extensively,  and  is  becoming  an  important  arti- 
cle of  commerce. 

The  Japanese  and  myrtle  wax  are  obtained  from  berries, 
and  the  palm  wax  from  bark. 

Wax  candles  are  generally  made  by  pouring  the  melted 
wax  over  the  wicks,  and  rolling  them,  during  the  process 
and  at  its  close,  between  two  marble  slabs,  in  order  to  give 
them  shape.  Moulds  of  glass  encased  in  gutta  percha 
are  sometimes  used. 

LESSON  LX. 

SHELLAC. 

Shellac  is  a  substance  produced  by  a  little  insect  called 
coccus  lacca,  and  is  deposited  on  the  small  branches  of  the 
Indian   fig  tree,  for  the  protection  of  its  eggs.     It  dis' 


326  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON   LXI. 

charges  the  gum  from  its  own  body,  and  forms  it  into 
cells,  in  each  of  which  is  placed  an  egg.  When  the  eggs 
are  hatched  the  young  grub  pierces  through  the  viscid 
substance  which  enclosed  it,  and  flies  away ;  and  the  ma- 
terial provided  for  a  little  insect's  well-being  becomes  a 
valuable  article  of  commerce.*  The  lac  is  first  sold  on  the 
sticks,  when  it  is  called  stick  lac ;  but  after  it  has  been 
purified  and  formed  into  thin  sheets  or  cakes,  it  is  called 
shellac.  Its  color  varies  from  orange  to  dark  reddish 
brown,  and  has  a  shining  lustre.  Before  the  discovery  of 
the  cochineal  dye,  shellac  was  much  used  by  the  dyers  of 
Prussia  and  Holland  in  forming  their  celebrated  crimson 
dyes.  It  is  the  principal  ingredient  in  sealing  wax  and 
varnish,  and  is  employed  in  japanning.  Its  usefulness 
arises  from  its  being  fusible,  soluble,  and  adhesive. 

LESSON  LXI. 

BUTTER. 

Butter  is  prepared  from  the  milk  of  the  cow.  When 
milk  has  been  allowed  to  stand  a  few  hours,  a  thick,  rich 
substance,  called  cream^  rises  t©  the  surface.  This  js 
skimmed  off,  and  by  being  briskly  agitated,  is  converted 
into  butter.  The  instrument  by  which  this  operation  is 
performed  is  called  a  chur?i.     There  is  another  substance 

*  The  children  would  be  interested  in  recollecting  many  instances  of 
this  primary  and  secondary  uses  of  substances,  and  their  attention  might 
be  directed  to  a  perception  of  the  difference  between  man's  work  and  that 
of  the  lower  creatures ;  the  latter  led  by  instinct,  the  former  by  reason 
and  experience,  resulting  in  discovery. 


CHEESE.  327 

found  in  the  churn  besides  butter  ;  it  is  called  huttermilJc^ 
and  when  fresh  is  considered  by  many  a  refresliing  drink. 
This  is  very  carefully  se]3arated  from  the  butter  by  "  work- 
ing" it  either  by  hand  or  a  wooden  ladle ;  in  dairies  w^here 
large  quantities  are  made,  a  machine  is  used  for  pressing 
the  buttermilk  from  the  butter.  The  butter  prepared  for 
winter  store  is  salted,  and  packed  in  barrels  and  tubs. 
The  place  where  the  milk  is  kept  is  called  a  dairy ^  and 
great  care  is  taken  to  keep  it  free  from  odors  of  every 
depcription. 

LESSON  LXII. 

CHEESE. 

Cheese  is  prepared  from  milk  which  is  coagulated  or 
curdled,  by  mixing  it  with  a  liquor  called  rennet ;  the  curd 
thus  formed  is  a  white,  solid  substance ;  this  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  whey  or  watery  particles  of  the  milk,  and 
then  pressed  and  dried.  Large  and  rich  cheeses  often  re- 
quire to  be  bound  with  strong  linen  cloth  to  prevent  their 
bursting  in  the  drying  process.  Rennet  is  made  by  steep- 
ing the  inner  membrane  of  a  young  calf's  stomach  in  wa- 
ter. This  is  salted,  dried,  and  kept  for  some  time  before 
using.  A  color  is  sometimes  given  to  cheese  by  saffron,  or 
by  a  substance  called  annato^  which  is  the  seed  vessel  of  a 
shrub  growing  in  the  West  Indies.  The  latter  ingredient 
is  so  often  adulterated  with  red  lead,  which  is  poisonous, 
tnat  its  use  is  generally  abandoned. 


828;  FIFTH   STEP. LESSON  LXin. 

LESSON    LXm. 

FELT. 

Felt  is  the  substance  of  which  hats  are  made.  It  is 
composed  of  hairs;  those  of  the  rabbit  are  chiefly  used 
by  hatters.  The  operation  oi  felting  depends  upon  a  pe- 
cuUar  construction  in  all  hairs,  which,  however  smooth 
and  even  they  may  appear,  have  in  reality  a  tiled  or  scaly 
texture  on  the  surface.  The  scales  are  so  placed  that  they 
yield  to  the  finger,  if  drawn  along  the  hair  from  the  root 
to  the  point,  but  present  a  resistance  when  moved  in  a  con- 
trary direction.  In  consequence  of  this  peculiarity,  if  the 
hair  be  seized  in  the  middle  between  two  fingers  and 
rubbed,  the  root  will  gradually  recede,  and  the  point  will 
approach  the  fingers,  exhibiting  a  progressive  motion  to- 
ward the  root ;  the  imbricated  surface  preventing  all  mo- 
tion in  the  opposite  way.  From  this  property  hairs,  when 
beaten  or  pressed  together,  begin  to  move  in  the  direction 
of  the  root,  and  are  disposed  to  catch  hold  and  twist  round 
each  other,  and  thus  to  cohere  and  form  a  continuous  mass, 
which  is  called  felt.  It  is  in  consequence  of  this  tendency 
to  felt  that  woollen  cloths  increase  in  density,  and  contract 
in  dimensions  by  being  washed  ;  and  also  that  they  do  not 
ravel  out  when  cut. 

This  material  was  formerly  made  by  hand.  By  this 
process  a  m^t)  was  occupied  a  day  in  making  four  or  five 
bat  "  bodies,"  as  they  are  called  before  the  "  sizing  "  and 
"  shaping  "  is  done.  Machinery  is  now  employed  by  which 
three  men  and  a  boy  can  make  four  hundred  in  a  day.    The 


TEXTILE   OR   WOVEN   FABRICS.  329 

rabbit's  fur  used  in  this  manufacture  is  principally  imported 
from  the  German  States  of  Europe. 


TEXTILE  OR  WOVEX  FABRICS,  AND  THEIR 
MATERIALS. 

Introduction. — The  materials  for  our  clothing  are  de- 
rived both  from  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms ; 
as,  however,  the  processes  these  materials  undergo  in  the 
course  of  manufacture  are  very  similar,  it  has  been  thought 
desirable  to  describe  them  under  one  head,  and  to  give,  at 
the  same  time,  a  short  account  of  spinning  and  weaving. 

The  process  of  spinning  consists  in  twisting  the  loose 
fibres  of  cotton,  flax,  wool,  or  other  fibrous  material,  into 
threads  fit  for  the  use  of  the  weaver,  and  is  one  of  the 
greatest  antiquity  ;  it  is  alluded  to  by  Moses  in  Exodus 
XXXV,  25,  and  was  not  then  spoken  of  as  a  new  art.  Origi- 
nally, it  was  performed  with  a  distaff  and  spindle,  the  for- 
mer being  a  stick  about  a  yard  in  length,  with  a  knob  or 
enlargement  near  one  end ;  the  flax  or  other  substance  to 
be  spun  (having  been  previously  combed  so  as  to  lay  the 
fibres  parallel)  was  loosely  twisted  around  it ;  thus  charged, 
the  distaif  was  held  under  the  left  arm,  and  some  of  the 
fibres  were  pulled  out  by  the  right  hand,  and  twisted  into 
a  thread  ;  this  thread  was  w^ound  upon  the  spindle,  a  rod 
of  wood  about  a  foot  in  length,  having  a  notch  at  one  end, 
in  which  the  thread  could  be  secured  ;  to  this  spindle,  a 
piece  of  metal  or  stone  was  attached,  to  increase  its  weight 
and  enable  the  spinner  to  keep  it  twirling  round  as  it  hung 
from  the  thread,  while  a  fresh  supply  of  fibres  was  pulled 


330  FIFTH    STEP. TEXTILE   FABRICS. 

out  from  the  distaif ;  when  a  sufficient  length  of  thread  was 
spun  to  permit  the  spindle  to  reach  the  ground,  the  thread 
was  removed  from  the  notch,  wound  on  the  spindle,  fast- 
ened by  being  again  secured  to  the  notch,  and  a  new 
length  commenced.  This  process  of  spinning  was  super- 
seded by  the  spinning  wheel,  in  which  contrivance  the  cot- 
ton or  other  substance,  after  having  been  combed  or  carded 
so  as  to  straighten  the  fibres  and  lay  them  perfectly  paral- 
lel, is  attached  to  a  spindle  that  is  made  to  revolve  with 
great  rapidity,  by  a  strap  of  leather,  which  also  passes 
around  a  large  wheel  turned  by  the  hand  or  foot  of  the 
spinner. 

At  the  present  time  the  spinning  wheel  is  very  rarely 
seen,  all  the  varieties  of  cloth  being  now  woven  from 
thread  spun  by  the  aid  of  powerful  and  very  comj^licated 
machinery,  which  acts  on  the  same  principle  as  the  spin- 
ning wheel,  but  is  far  too  intricate  to  be  understood  with- 
out diagrams  and  a  much  longer  description  than  falls 
within  the  plan  of  the  present  work. 

Weaving,  or  the  art  of  making  cloth  by  the  interlace- 
ment of  threads,  has  also  been  practised  from  the  earliest 
times.  It  is  in  all  probability  older  even  than  spinning,  for 
rushes  and  the  fibrous  stems  of  plants  were  probably  woven 
together  into  a  sort  of  coarse  matting,  such  as  is  now  used 
by  some  of  the  least  civilized  nations,  long  before  the 
twisting  or  spinning  together  of  fibres  to  form  threads 
was  had  recourse  to ;  however  this  may  be,  representa- 
tions of  hand  looms  for  weaving  are  found  upon  the 
tombs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  constructed  on  precisely 
th«^  -same  plan  as  those  in    use   at   the  present   day,  and 


COTTOJT.  331 

these  paintings  were  probably  made  in  the  times  of  the 
patriarchs. 

If  we  examine  any  piece  of  plain  woven  material,  as 
calico,  silk,  or  canvas,  we  lind  a  number  of  parallel  threads 
running  the  whole  length  of  the  piece  of  cloth  ;  these  form 
the  warp,  and  those  which  pass  across  them  at  right  angles 
in  the  direction  of  the  width  of  the  cloth,  form  the  weft, 
the  threads  of  these  pass  alternately  over  and  under  those 
of  the  warp ;  in  reality,  there  is  but  one  thread  of  weft, 
which  is  doubled  back  at  the  edge  of  the  cloth,  and  re- 
turns, passing  over  those  threads  it  passed  under  before, 
and  under  those  which  it  previously  passed  over;  the 
arrangement  of  the  threads  being  similar  to  that  which  is 
produced  in  darning,  when  that  operation  is  performed  to 
fill  up  the  vacant  space  in  a  worn  stocking. 

The  hand  loom  is  still  used  occasionally,  but  is  rapidly 
giving  place  to  larger  instruments  worked  by  steam  power, 
in  which  all  the  various  processes  in  weaving  are  performed 
by  means  of  machinery.  The  larger  machines  are  known 
by  the  name  of  power  looms.   * 

lesso:n"  lxiy. 

COTTON. 

This  extremely  valuable  substance,  wnich  is  now  raised 
in  such  abundance  as  to  furnish  the  cheapest  and  most  ex- 
tensively used  clothing,  is  produced  in  the  seed  vessels  of 
the  cotton  plant,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties  ;  some 
are  herbaceous  annual  plants,  growing  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  high  ;  others,  shrubs,  about  the  size  of 


332  FIFTH   STEP. LESSON   LXIV. 

our  currant  bushes,  and  of  from  two  to  ten  years'  dura- 
tion ;  while  a  third  kind  attain  the  growth  of  small  trees, 
of  an  altitude  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet. 

The  leaves  of  the  cotton  plant  are  of  a  bright  dark 
green  color,  deeply  divided  into  five  lobes  ;  the  flowers  are 
large  and  showy,  of  a  bright  sulphur  or  lemon  color,  and 
closely  resembling  in  appearance  and  botanical  structure 
those  of  the  single  hollyhock;  each  flower  is  succeeded 
by  a  triangular,  three-celled  seed  vessel,  which  attains  th^ 
size  of  a  small  walnut,  and,  when  ripe,  bursts  open  fronj 
the  swelling  of  the  cotton  contained  in  the  three  cells ; 
the  seeds,  which  are  rather  larger  than  those  of  grapes, 
are  enclosed  in  the  cotton  wool,  which  adheres  very  firm- 
ly to  them.  One  variety  of  cotton,  cultivated  in  China 
and  some  parts  of  America,  has  a  yellow  tint ;  this  tint  it 
preserves  when  woven  into  the  fabric  called  nankeen. 

The  cotton  plant  is  largely  cultivated  in  India,  China 
the  United  States,  West  Indies,  on  the  shores  of  the  Medl 
terranean,  and,  in  short,  in  almost  all  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  world ;  it  flourishes  readily  in  soils  too  poor  for  the. 
growth  of  grain  and  other  crops,  and  succeeds  well  iij 
moderately  dry  seasons.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  Southern 
States  from  the  seed  which  is  sown  by  hand  in  March  and 
April. 

The  cotton,  when  perfectly  ripe,  is  gathered  by  women 
and  children,  the  seeds  and  wool  being  picked  out  of  the 
pod ;  it  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  is  then  ready  for  tbe  re- 
moval of  the  seeds.  This  was  formerly  done  by  hand,  but 
a  more  rapid  process  is  now  adopted.  The  cotton  is  placed 
in  a  box,  one  side  of  which  is  formed  of  stout  paraL'el 


COTTON.  333 

wires,  placed  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart ;  by  the 
side  of  this  box  is  a  roller,  carrying  a  number' of  circular 
saws,  with  curved  teeth,  which  project  through  the  wires 
into  the  box.  On  the  roller  being  made  to  revolve,  the 
teeth  of  the  saws  drag  the  cotton  through  the  wires,  the 
seeds  remaining  behind  ;  after  being  thus  separated,  the 
cotton  is  powerfully  compressed  into  bags,  and  is  ready 
for  transport  to  various  manufacturing  countries. 

The  spinnhig  and  weaving  of  cotton  into  calicoes  and 
other  fabrics  are  now  almost  entirely  accomplished  by 
means  of  machinery,  moved  either  by  steam  or  water 
power.  The  fibres  of  the  cotton  are  first  separated  from 
each  other,  and  cleared  from  dust,  by  means  of  a  contriv- 
ance called  a  willow,  a  machine  formed  of  rollers,  in  which 
iron  spikes  are  fixed ;  these  are  made  to  turn  round  rapidly, 
and  the  fibres  are  thus  separated,  and  then  laid  parallel 
by  the  carding  macihine,  in  which  they  are  passed  between 
two  brushes  (or  cards,  as  they  are  termed)  made  with  iron 
wire ;  thus  prepared,  they  are  transferred  to  the  machines, 
which  spin  them  into  yarn,  or  thread,  fit  for  the  use  of 
the  weaver.  The  strong  and  firm  material  known  as  sew- 
ing cotton  consists  of  several  yarns  twisted  together. 

In  order  that  the  cotton  manufacture  may  be  success- 
fully carried  on  in  any  particular  district,  it  is  essential,  first, 
that  it  should  be  situated  where  fuel  is  cheap,  if  steam 
power  is  used,  or  on  rapidly  descending  streams,  if 
the  machinery  is  driven  by  water  power ;  second,  that  it 
should  be  as  near  as  possible  the  country  from  whence 
the  cotton  is  principally  brought ;  third,  that  there  should 
be  easy  means  of  communication  with  seaports  and"  other 


334  FIFTH   STEP. LESSON   LXV. 

parts  of  the  country.  These  several  conditions  are  ail 
fulfilled  in  actual  localities  of  the  cotton  manufacture.  In 
England,  the  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  and  in  Scotland, 
the  western  portion  of  the  central  coal  fields  are  its  seats. 
England  obtains  her  greatest  and  earliest  supply  of  cotton 
from  America ;  and  the  coal  fields  on  which  the  cotton  is 
manufactured  are  to  tho  west  of  Britain. 

LESSON    LXV. 

FLAX. 

The  fibre  of  the  flax  plant  has  been  employed  -as  a  ma- 
terial for  clothing  from  very  remote  times ;  it  was  in  com- 
mon use  among  the  Egyptians.  In  Gen.  xli,  42,  we  read 
that  Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of  fine  linen.  Re- 
2:)resentations  of  flax,  and  of  its  different  stages  of  manu- 
facture abound  amongst  the  paintings  on  the  Egyptian 
tombs,  and  the  various  specimens  of  mummy  cloth  hitherto 
examined  have  been  formed  entirely  of  this  substance. 

It  is  produced  extensively  in  Russia,  the  United  States, 
and  Ireland,  but  the  best  flax  in  the  world  is  found  in  Hol- 
land and  Belixium.  Flax  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
linen  sheetings,  shirtings,  handkerchiefs,  table  linens,  and 
some  kinds  of  lace  and  edgings. 

The  variety  of  flax  most  commonly  cultivated  is  an  an- 
nual, with  slender,  green,  herbaceous  stems,  about  two  feet 
in  height,  bearing  small,  narrow  pointed  leaves,  destitute 
of  stalks,  and  crowned  by  a  number  of  elegant  blue 
flowers,  each  of  which  is  succeeded  by  a  globular  seed-vea* 
sel,  containing  ten  flat  oblong  se^s  of  a  dark  brown  color. 


FLAX.  335 

The  flax  plant  is  cultivated  as  well  for  the  sake  of  its 
seeds,  which  are  the  well  known  "  linseed  "  of  commerce, 
as  for  the  valuable  fibres  yielded  by  the  stem  ;  when  the 
latter  are  the  principal  objects  of  cultivation,  the  plants  are 
sown  thickly,  so  as  to  cause  the  stems  of  the  crowded 
plants  to  run  up  high ;  on  the  contrary,  when  the  seeds  are 
required,  the  plants  are  sown  less  thickly,  and  allowed  to 
remain  a  longer  time  in  the  ground  before  they  are  gath- 
ered. When  ripe,  the  leaves  of  the  plant  fall  off  and  the 
stems  turn  yellow ;  the  flax  is  then  pulled  by  hand,  care- 
fully dried  in  the  sun,  and  either  stacked  under  cover,  or 
deprived  of  its  seeds  at  once  by  pulling  the  tops  of  the 
stems  through  a  coarse  iron  comb,  fixed  perpendicularly  in 
a  block  of  wood ;  the  seed  vessels,  being  too  large  to  pass 
through  the  teeth  of  the  comb,  are  torn  ofi*. 

The  seeds  of  the  flax  plant  thus  obtained  are  extremely 
valuable  to  man ;  they  are  known,  as  before  observed,  un- 
der the  name  of  linseed,  and,  when  pressed,  yield  a  very 
useful  oil. 

The  stems  of  the  flax,  freed  from  the  seeds,  undergo  a 
series  of  processes  to  prepare  them  for  the  use  of  the 
weaver ;  they  are  first  steeped  in  shallow  pools  of  water 
until  partially  rotted,  to  cause  the  fibres  of  the  bark  (the 
only  part  used  in  Aveaving)  to  separate  readily  from  each 
other ;  they  are  then  usually  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
sun  and  air  by  spreading  them  out  on  the  grass  for  about  a 
fortnight ;  the  central  w^oody  portion  of  the  stem,  which 
has  been  rendered  brittle  by  steeping,  is  then  removed  by 
an  instrument  termed  a  brake,  the  simplest  form  of  which 
consists  of  a  long  slit  in  a  block  of  wood,  with  a  wooden 


336  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    LXVI. 

sword  fitting  loosely  into  it ;  a  bundle  of  flax  is  laid  across 
the  slit  and  forced  into  it  by  the  sword  ;  the  brittle,  woody 
part  of  the  stem  is  broken  by  the  bending  to  which  it  is 
thus  subjected.  The  brake  in  general  consists  of  three  or 
more  swords  fitted  into  one  handle  ;  these  pass  into  a  cor- 
responding number  of  slits,  and  break  the  stem  with  great 
rapidity ;  the  broken  woody  portions  are  readily  separated 
from  the  tough  uninjured  fibres  either  by  beating  with  a 
short  staff,  or  by  rubbing  out  with  the  hand. 

To  render  the  flax  fit  for  the  purposes  of  the  spinner,  it 
is  next  hatchelled,  a  process  necessary  to  lay  the  fibres  par- 
allel, and  separate  those  which,  from  their  shortness,  are 
not  used.  The  hatchel  may  be  compared  to  a  brush 
formed  of  sharply  pointed  needles  instead  of  bristles ;  it  is 
fixed  on  a  low  stand,  with  the  points  upward  ;  the  work- 
man, taking  a  bundle  of  flax  in  his  hand,  throws  it  on  to 
the  hatchel,  and  drawing  it  toward  himself  through  the 
teeth,  the  long  fibres  become  parallel,  while  the  short 
broken  ones  are  retained  by  the  instrument ;  those  latter 
form  the  well  known  substance  called  tow.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  these  processes  are  very  extensively  performed  by 
machinery.  '-. 

After  hatchelHng,  the  flax  is  fit  for  the  use  of  the  spin- 
ner ;  nearly  all  the  flax  now  used  in  this  country  is  spun  by 
machines,  the  spinning  wheel  being  rarely  seen. 

LESSON    LXVI. 

HEMP. 

The  plant  yielding  the  hemp  of  commerce  is  an  annual, 
the  native  country  of  which  was  probably  the  East,  but  it 


HEMP.  337 

is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  most  parts  of  the  world ; 
the  stem  is  simple  or  unbranched,  and  rises  to  a  height 
of  about  five  or  six  feet,  bearing  numerous  leaves,  each 
divided  into  a  number  of  narrow  pointed  leaflets,  deeply 
notched  at  the  margin ;  the  whole  j^lant  is  covered  with 
stift*  hairs,  which  give  it  a  pecuHar  harshness  to  the 
touch. 

The  flowers  are  of  two  hinds,  barren  and  fertile  ;  these 
grow  on  distinct  plants,  and  are  green  and  inconspicuous ; 
the  plant  bearing  the  barren  or  male  flowers  is  of  quicker 
growth  than  that  which  bears  the  female  or  fertile,  and 
rises  several  inches  higlier  ;  by  this  means  the  fertilizing 
powder  that  it  produces  is  more  readily  scattered  over  the 
fertile  plants  ;  the  flowers  of  the  latter  plants  arc  succeed- 
ed by  the  small  seed  like  fruits  enclosed  in  the  green  cup 
of  the  flower ;  these  are  collected  and  sold  under  the  name 
of  hemp  seed ;  this  seed,  when  crushed  in  a  press,  yields  a 
large  quantity  of  oil,  much  used  in  the  preparation  of  A^ar- 
nishes,  and  occasionally  employed  in  the  formation  of  some 
kinds  of  soap. 

Hemp  seed,  being  extremely  nutritious,  is  much  sought 
after  by  birds,  and  frequently  given  to  those  kept  in  con- 
finement. The  plant,  when  grown  in  tropical  climates, 
possesses  a  peculiar  narcotic  power,  and  an  extract  of  the 
leaves,  when  swallowed  or  smoked,  produces  intoxication  ; 
it  is  employed  for  this  purpose  by  the  inhabitants  of  some 
parts  of  the  East,  to  whom  the  use  of  wine  is  forbidden  by 
the  Mohammedan  religion. 

Hemp  is  chiefly  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  fibres, 
which  are  very  tough  and  flexible,  and  particularly  adapt- 
15 


338  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   LXVI. 

ed  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse,  strong  fabrics,  such  a3 
canvas,  sail  cloth,  sacking,  as  well  as  for  making  twijie, 
cordage,  ropes,  and  cables;  the  quantity  used  for  these 
purposes  is  extremely  large  ;  from  20,000  to  30,000  tons 
are  annually  exported  from  Russia  to  English  and  Ameri- 
can markets  alone. 

English  hemp  is  chiefly  woven  into  coarse  sheeting,  and 
into  the  cloth  called  liuckaback,  of  which  coarse  towels  are 
made. 

Ilemp  is  most  profitably  cultivated  in  a  rich,  liglit  soil, 
the  coarseness  and  strength  of  the  fibres  depending  on  the 
amount  and  the  richness  of  the  manure.  When  required 
for  the  use  of  the  weaver,  it  is,  like  flax,  sown  Broadcast ; 
the  stems  are  in  consequence  crowded,  and  rise  higher ; 
they  are  also  less  coarse  than  when  the  plants  are  sown  in 
drills  at  a  greater  distance  apart.  The  full-grown  plants 
are  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  those  bearing  barren  flowers 
being  first  selected  ;  the  fertile  ones  are  left  some  weeks 
later  to  ripen  their  seeds,  which  are  readily  rubbed  out  by 
the  hand.  After  the  plants  are  gathered,  the  tops  and 
roots  are  cut  off  in  the  fields,  to  be  left  as  manure,  and  the 
stems,  tied  up  in  bundles,  are  placed  in  water ;  this  rots 
the  woody  and  useless  parts,  and  leaves  the  fibres  in  a  state 
in  which  they  can  be  more  readily  separated.  This  pro- 
cess, which  is  termed  rotting,  renders  the  water  poisonous, 
and  occasions  a  very  offensive  odor.  When  it  is  com- 
pleted, the  hemp  is  dried,  and  the  woody  portion,  broken 
by  hatchelling,  is  removed,  as  described  under  the  head 
of  flax ;  after  this  't  is  ready  to  be  spun  into  yarn  for 
weaving. 


SILK.  339 

Hemp  is  largely  used  for  the  formation  of  string,  cord- 
age, ifec,  the  fibres  being  twisted  so  as  to  unite  firmly  to- 
gether. This  process  was  formerly  performed  by  hand ; 
the  spinner  took  a  bundle  of  hatchelled  hemp  and  wrapped 
it  around  his  w^aist ;  he  then  drew  out  a  few  fibres,  and 
twisting  them  together,  fastened  them  to  a  hook,  which 
was  twirled  round  with  great  rapidity  by  a  large  wheel 
generally  turned  by  a  boy  ;  the  spiuner  w^alked  backward 
from  the  hook,  and  as  he  did  so  the  twisting  yarn  drew 
out  additional  fibres  from  the  bundle  round  his  waist, 
while  with  his  hand  he  regulated  the  number  of  these 
fibres,  and  caused  the  yarn  to  be  of  uniform  size  ;  the  yarns 
so  made  were  again  twisted  into  strands ;  three  of  these 
strands  form  a  rope,  and  three  ropes  united  make  a  cable. 
Horse  power  was  employed  in  twisting  the  ropes  and  ca- 
bles. Steam  machinery  now  performs  all  these  operations, 
from  the  hatchelUng  of  the  hemp  to  the  twisting  of  the 
rope  or  cable. 

LESSOR   LXYH. 

SII.K. 

The  formation  of  raw  silk,  and  the  amount,  have  been 
described  under  the  head  of  the  silkworm  moth,  and  it 
remains  only  to  trace  its  further  pi-ogress  into  spun  silk, 
adapted  for  the  use  of  the  weaver  and  the  sempstress. 
The  hanks  of  raw  silk,  having  been  washed  in  warm  water, 
are  wound  upon  bobbins  or  reels ;  this  is  accomplished  by 
a  winding  machine,  the  efiect  produced  by  this  machinery 
being  the  same  as  w^hen  a  skein  of  thread  is  held  on  the 


340  FIFTH    STEP. ^LESSON   LXVII. 

outstretched  hands  of  one  person  and  wound  on  a  reel  by 
another.  The  silk  is  then  twisted,  or  thrown^  as  it  is 
termed,  so  as  to  unite  several  filaments  together  into  a 
single  yarn,  and  for  the  stouter  threads  several  yarns  are 
again  twisted  together,  or  doubled;  the  tendency  of  the 
filaments  to  untwist  after  being  twisted  is  counteracted 
by  exposure  to  steam,  which  gives  the  threads  a  perma- 
nent set. 

The  only  silk  fabrics  requiring  a  particular  notice  are 
changeable  silks,  satin,  and  velvet.  Changeable  silks  are 
formed  by  having  the  warp  and  the  weft  of  differently 
colored  yarns;  a  peculiar  play  of  colors  is  thus  produced 
when  the  fabric  is  moved,  or  seen  from  different  points  of 
view.  Satin  owes  its  peculiar  softness  and  lustre  to  the 
circumstance  of  its  being  so  woven  that  the  threads  of  the 
warp  alone  are  visible,  those  of  the  weft  scarcely  coming 
to  the  upper  surface ;  this  is  accomplished  by  carrying  the 
thread  of  the  weft  under  five  or  six  threads  of  the  warp, 
and  over  one;  again  under  five  or  six  threads,  and  over 
one,  and  so  on  across  the  warp ;  by  this  means  the  warp 
threads  alone  are  seen,  and  a  rich,  unbroken  glossy  surface 
is  produced.  Velvet,  the  soft|^ile  of  which  is  so  peculiar, 
is  formed  by  weaving  short  loops  of  silk  into  the  fabric ; 
these  loops,  which  stand  at  right  angles  to,  and  hide  both 
the  weft  and  the  warp,  are  afterward  cut  open  by  a  sharp 
instrument,  and  the  cut  ends  of  the  silk  standing  up  from 
.the  pile  give  rise  to  the  peculiarly  soft  appearance  of  the 
velvet ;  this  arrangement  may  also  be  observed  in  hearth 
rugs,  where  the  cut  ends  of  short  worsted  threads  rise  up 
from  a  coarse  canvas  foundation. 


WOOL.  341 

Silk  fabrics  are  manufactured  mostly  in  England, 
France,  Italy,  and  China. 

LESSON  LXVIIL 

WOOL. 

The  clothing  manufactured  from  wool  is  particularly 
adapted  to  cold  countries;  not  that  it  communicates 
warmth,  but,  being  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  it  prevents 
that  of  our  bodies  from  escaping.  Wool  is  the  hairy  cov- 
ering of  sheep,  which  has  a  peculiar  felting  property ;  it  is 
taken  from  the  living  animal  in  the  summer  season,  by  an 
operation  called  sheep  shearing^  and  in  that  state  is  called 
the  fleece.  The  wool  of  the  Spanish  sheep  is  particularly 
fine  ;  the  flocks  in  that  country  are  often  very  large,  con- 
taining as  many  as  a  thousand  sheep. 

The  first  operation  performed  on  the  raw  wool  is  to  pick 
and  sort  it ;  this  is  particularly  needful,  as  the  same  sheep 
produces  wool  of  various  qualities.  It  is  next  cleansed 
from  its  impurities,  and  committed  to  the  wool  comber^ 
who,  by  means  of  iron-spiked  combs  of  different  degrees 
of  fineness,  draws  out  the  fibres,  smooths,  and  straightens 
them.  It  is  then  prepared  for  the  spi7iner^  who  forms  it 
into  threads,  the  more  twisted  of  which  are  called  icorsted, 
and  the  less  twisted  yar7i.  It  is  then  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  every  description  of  hosiery,  stuifs,  carpets, 
flannels,  blankets,  and  cloths.  England  manufactures  so 
much  woollen  clothing,  that  it  was  formerly  considered  the 
staple  commodity  of  the  country ;  and  to  mark  its  import- 
ance the  Lord  Chancellor  sits  upon  a  woolsack. 


342  FIFTH   STEP. — MINERALS. 

MINERALS. 

GENERAL   CHARACTERS    OF    MINERALS. 

The  objects  derived  from  the  mineral  kingdom  afford 
one  of  the  most  obvious  means  of  supplying  material 
wealth  to  a  country.  In  fact,  some  countries  derive  their 
chief  importance  from  the  abundant  supply  of  mineral 
wealth  which  they  export  to  other  countries  less  richly 
furnished  than  they  in  this  particular. 

Minerals  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the 
possession  of  certain  characters,  the  most  important. of 
which  will  be  briefly  described  here,  in  order  to  prevent 
repetition  in  speaking  of  the  several  species  in  detail. 

Lustre. — Many  minerals  possess  a  high  degree  of 
brightness,  but  in  characterizing  them,  the  kind  of  lustre 
is  more  important  than  its  degree.  The  most  important 
varieties  are — 

The  metallic  lustre,  as  in        .        .        .        .        Black  lead. 

Vitreous,  or  glassy  lustre,  as  in  .        .  Rock  crystal. 

Resinous,  or  waxy  lustre,  as  ja"       .        .        Amber. 

Pearly  lustre,  as  in       .        .  .        .  Satin  spar. 

When  minerals  are  destitute  of  any  lustre,  they  are 
termed  dull. 

Color, — The  colors  of  minerals  are  very  numerous,  and 
it  frequently  happens  that  several  different  tints  may  occur 
in  the  same  mineral,  from  the  mixture  of  small  portions  of 
other  substances.  Color,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  regarded 
as  a  character  of  great  value  in  distinguishing  minerals. 


MINEEALS.  343 

except  when  it  occurs  in  connection  with  metallic  lustre ; 
it  is  then  more  definite,  as,  for  example,  in  lead  ore  or  ga- 
lena, which  is  always  gray. 

Some  minerals  are  distinguished  by  peculiar  appear- 
ances connected  with  color, — such  as  the  rainbow-like 
variety  of  tints  found  in  several  of  those  possessed  of 
metallic  brightness, — for  example,  in  the  copper  ore,  called 
from  this  circumstance,  peacock  copper  ore,  and  the  re- 
flection of  a  floating  milky  light  from  the  interior  of  some 
others,  which  is  called  opalescence  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
very  distinct  in  the  opal. 

Hardness. — While  difierent  minerals  vary  very  much  in 
their  degree  of  hardness,  this  character  is  generally  con- 
stant in  the  same  species.  Plardness  is,  therefore,  regarded 
as  of  great  importance  in  distinguishing  minerals.  Its  de- 
gree may  be  readily  ascertained  by  the  ease  or  difficulty 
with  which  one  mineral  will  scratch  another.  In  describ- 
ing hardness,  the  following  scale  is  employed  : 

SCALE  OF  THE  DEGREES  OF  HARDNESS  OF  MINERALS. 

No.  1.  Yields  easily  to  the  finger  nail,  as  for  example,       .         Chalk. 

2.  Yields  with  difficulty  to  the  nail,  but  does  not  scratch  a 

copper  coin,         ....  Rock  salt. 

3.  Scratches  a  copper  coin,  and  is  also  scratched  by  it,  be- 

ing of  about  the  same  degree  of  hardness,       .       Lime  spar, 

4.  Not  scratched  by  a  copper  coin,  but  not  hard  enough 

to  scratch  glass,  .  .  ,  Fluor  spar. 

5.  Scratches  glass  with  difficulty,  and  yields  easily  to  the 

knife,  .....  Apatite. 

6.  Scratches  glass  easily,  and  yields  with  difficulty  to  the 

knife,     .....  Felspar. 


344  FIFTH    STEP. — MIXEKALS. 

1.  Does  not  yield  to  the  knife,  and  to  a  fine  file  with  dif- 
ficulty,       .....  Flint. 

8.  \  /  .  .  .  Topaz. 

9.  >•  Harder  than  flint.   <        .  .  .  .         Emery. 
10.  '                                   '              .             .            .  Diamond. 

The  diamond  is  the  only  mineral  of  the  highest  degree 
of  hardness,  and  is  therefore  used  for  cutting  glass,  &c., 
the  natural  edges  of  the  crystal  being  employed  for  that 
purpose.  K  the  edges  artificially  made  by  cutting  a  dia- 
mond are  used,  they  are  soon  worn  down ;  consequently 
diamond  rings  are  much  injured  if  employed  for  scratching 
glass. 

Weight,  or  specific  gravity/. — The  weight  of  minerals, 
and,  in  fact,  of  all  solid  and  liquid  substances,  is  compared 
with  that  of  water  as  a  standard,  and  is  termed  their  spe- 
cific gravity,  or  peculiar  weight.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
weight  of  sulphur  is  almost  twice  that  of  water,  flint  nearly 
three  times,  «fec.  It  is  a  more  convenient  and  accurate 
mode  of  calculation  to  consider  the  weight  of  water  as  ex- 
pressed by  ],000;  that  of  sulphur  would  then  be  1,980; 
flint,  2,700.  These  numbers  are  termed  the  specific  gravi' 
ties  of  these  substances. 

In  the  following  list,  the  specific  gravity  of  several  of 
the  most  common  mineral  substances  is  given  : 

Water, 1,000 

Coal,  ....  1,200  to  1,500 

Clay, 1,800  to  2,700 

Sulphur,  ....  1,980 

Rock  salt,  ....  2,250 

Granite,  ....  2,000 


MINERALS.  345 

Limestone,  ....  2,250  to  2,500 

Chalk,  ....  2,500 

Slate,  .....  2,750 

Flint,  ....  2,700 

Emery,        .....  4,000 

The  specific  gravity  of  water  being  taken  at  1,000 
gives  peculiar  facilities  for  ascertaining  the  weight  of  any 
substance,  as  it  so  happens  that  one  cubic  foot  of  water 
weighs  almost  exactly  1,000  ounces.  It  follows  that  the 
specific  gravity  of  any  substance  gives  the  actual  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  in  ounces,  sufiiciently  accurate  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes.  Thus,  for  example,  the  specific  gravity  of 
granite  being  2,600,  a  cubic  foot  of  it  will  weigh  2,600 
ounces,  or  1Q2^  lbs. ;  a  cubic  foot  of  clay,  in  like  manner, 
2,000  ounces,  or  125  lbs.,  &c.,  &c. 

Those  minerals  which  are  five  times  heavier  than  water 
are  mostly  metallic  ores,  as  lead  or  galena  ore,  &c. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in 
one  ton  of  the  undermentioned  minerals: 

Sand,  .            .            .            .  23|^  cubic  feet. 

Gravel, 21|  " 

Granite,  .            .             .             .  13 1-          " 

Marble, 13 

Chalk,  ....  13            " 

Form. — By  far  the  larger  number  of  minerals  are  nat- 
urally formed  in  determined  shapes,  called  crystals ;  when 
this  is  not  the  case,  they  are  termed  massive.  Minerals, 
whether  crystalline  or  massive,  have  usually  a  certain  inter- 
nal arrangement  of  their  particles,  which  causes  them, 
15* 


346  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    LXIX. 

when  broken,  to  separate  in  some  directions  more  readily 
than  in  others.  This  is  termed  their  cleavage ;  for  ex- 
ample, rock  salt  and  lead  ore  invariably  break  up  into 
cubes,  &c. 

When  broken  by  a  blow,  minerals  exhibit  several  varie- 
ties on  the  broken  surface.  This  is  termed  their  fracture^ 
and  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  forms  into  which 
they  cleave. 

LESSON  LXIX. 

LIME. 

The  substance  called  Ume  is  never  found  pure  in  nature, 
Otving  to  its  great  affinity  for  carbonic  acid  *  and  for  water. 
All  the  earths  of  which  lime  forms  the  basis  are  called  cal- 
careous. \  It  is  the  most  universally  diffused  of  all  sub- 
stances, and  one  of  the  most  abundant ;  it  is  computed  that 
it  constitutes  -one  eighth  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  In  this 
distribution  we  have  great  cause  to  admire  the  wise  and 
good  providence  of  the  Creator,  as  the  utility  of  lime  in 
various  arts,  in  agriculture,  in  manufactures,  and  in  medi- 
cine is  very  great.  Lime,  united  with  carbonic  acid,  forms 
common  limestone,  chalk,  marble,  &c. ;  with  sulphuric  acid, 
it  constitutes  gypsum  or  alabaster ;  and  with  fluoric  acid, 
fluor  or  Derbyshire  spar.    These  are  its  most  interesting 

*  Carbon  is  charcoal  in  its  purest  and  colorless  state  ;  it  is  most  abun- 
dant in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  is  chiefly  obtained  from  wood.  The 
diamond  is  the  only  pure  carbon  that  is  known.  United  with  oxygen,  car 
bon  forms  carbonic  acid. 

f  Calcareous,  from  the  Latin  calx^  lime. 


LIME.  347 

combinations  with  mineral  substances.  It  enters  also  into 
the  composition  of  animal  matter,  as  shells,  bones,  and  the 
hard  coverings  of  insects ;  our  bones  contain  eight  parts 
in  ten  of  Ume ;  and  the  shells  of  birds'  eggs,  nine  parts  in 
ten. 

Pure  lime  is  procured  from  chalk,  or  limestone,  by 
means  of  burning.  Alternate  layers  of  calcareous  earth 
and  fuel  are  arranged  in  a  kiln  ;  a  fire  being  kindled,  the 
carbonic  acid  and  water  become  volatilized,  and  are  driven 
ofi",  leaving  the  lime  pure.  In  this  state  it  is  called  quick 
limey  and  is  white,  caustic,  acrid,  pungent,  and  infusible ; 
corroding  and  destroying  animal  matter.  When  water  is 
l^oured  upon  it,  it  swells,  falls  into  a  powder,  and  gives  out 
great  heat.  This  last  operation  is  called  slaching  the  lime. 
The  water  combining  with  the  lime  becomes  solid,  and  the 
heat  is  occasioned  by  its  changing  from  a  fluid  to  a  solid 
state,  for  in  doing  this  it  parts  with  some  of  its  caloric. 
The  uses  of  lime  are  numerous  and  important.  It  is 
formed  into  mortar,  the  cement  used  in  building.  The 
lime  being  slacked,  is  made  into  a  j^aste  by  tempering  it 
with  water ;  to  this  is  added  sand,  and  sometimes  chopped 
hairs ;  as  it  dries  it  becomes  solid,  hard,  and  durable.  Ex- 
amples have  been  known  of  buildings  a  thousand  years 
old,  in  which  the  mortar  is  as  hard  as  the  stones  which  it 
unites. 

Lime  is  used  as  a  manure,  to  loosen  soils  which  are  too 
tenacious,  and  to  render  them  more  friable  and  capable  of 
receiving  vegetable  fibres ;  it  also  hastens  the  dissolution 
and  putrefaction  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  of 
which   mould  is  chiefly  composed,  and  gives  it  the  power 


348  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON    LXX. 

of  acquiring  and  retaining  moisture,  so  necessary  to  the 
growth  of  vegetables.  Lime  is  also  employed  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  sugar,  to  deprive  it  of  a  portion  of  its  acid. 
Tanners  use  it  in  removing  hairs  from  the  hides,  and 
cleansing  them  from  fat  and  grease ;  it  is  used  also  in 
bleaching,  and  as  a  flux  in  the  smelting  of  metals. 


LESSON    LXX. 

ALUMINE,      OK     ARGIL. 

This  substance  obtained  the  name  of  alumine  from  its 
forming  the  base  of  common  alum  ;  and  argil,*  on  account 
of  its  being  the  constituent  of  all  clays,  which  are  there- 
fore termed  argillaceous  earths.  The  distinguishing  quali- 
ties of  clays  are,  that  they  have  an  earthy  texture,  give 
out  a  peculiar  odor  when  breathed  upon,  which  lias  been 
thence  called  the  argillaceous  odor;  they  adhere  to  the 
tongue  ;  are  never  found  crystallized,  but  sometimes  slaty; 
are  generally  opaque,  and  their  weight  is  about  twice  as 
great  as  that  of  water.  When  tempered  with  water,  most 
argillaceous  substances  become  soft,  tenacious,  and  plas- 
tic;! but  shrink  and  harden  by  the  application  of  heat. 
Alumine  is  never  found  pure  in  nature  ;  but  it  is  considered 
to  be  the  most  plentiful  earth  next  to  silex. 

Common  clay  is  a  nearly  equal  admixture  of  alumine 
and  silex  ;  it  is  found  in  most  countries,  and  is  very  valu- 
able in  various  arts ;  for  these  it  is  peculiarly  fitted,  as  it 

•  Argil,  from  Latin  argil/a,  clay. 

f  Plastic,  from  irA.curo'-€iy  (plasH-<;<rt),  to  form. 


ALUMIXE,    OR    ARGIL.  34t 

may  be  moulded  into  any  form,  which  it  retains  unchanged 
after  exposure  to  heat.  The  beds  of  lakes,  ponds,  and 
springs,  are  almost  entirely  of  clay ;  instead  of  allowing 
the  filtration  of  water,  as  sand  does,  it  forms  an  impenetra- 
ble bottom,  and  by  this  means  water  is  accumulated  in  the 
caverns  of  the  earth,  producing  those  natural  reservoirs 
whence  springs  issue  and  spout  out  at  the  surface.  Clayey 
soils,  in  consequence  of  their  absorbing  and  retaining 
moisture,  are  heavy  and  sticky.  Clay  is  often  used,  by 
the  poorer  classes  in  some  countries  in  forming  their 
cottages. 

It  is  the  substance  of  which  bricks  and  tiles  are  con- 
structed ;  when  well  baked  in  a  kiln,  or  in  the  sun,  it  be- 
comes very  hard  and  durable.  A  proof  of  this  is  furnished 
in  the  existence  at  the  present  day  of  those  mighty  Egyp- 
tian pyramids,  which  many  suppose  to  have  been  the  work 
of  the  Israelites  in  their  bondage. 

Porcelain  clay  is  that  employed  in  china  manufactories ; 
it  absorbs  moisture  rapidly,  and  becomes  very  tenacious 
when  kneaded.  It  is  distinguished  from  other  clays  by 
the  fineness  of  its  texture  and  its  friability.  A  coarser 
kind,  called  potter'' 8  clay^  is  used  in  making  common  earth- 
enware. 

Another  description  of  clay,  of  a  plastic  nature,  is  called 
pipe  clay^  from  its  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pipes ; 
it  is  cast  in  a  cylindrical  mould,  a  wire  being  afterward 
run  through  it  to  form  the  hollow  through  which  tho 
fumes  of  the  tobacco  are  inhaled  ;  when  baked,  it  be- 
comes hard  and  white.  This  clay  is  also  used  in  extract- 
ing grease   out  ot  different   substances.     Jb'alkr-s  earth  ia 


350  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    LXXI. 

anotlier  argillaceous  substance,  which  was  formerly  similar- 
]y  employed. 

Tlie  soil  or  mould  which  covers  our  fields  and  gardens, 
contains  more  or  less  of  these  three  substances,  aluraine, 
silica,  and  lime.  They  occur  in  very  different  proportions ; 
a  mixture  of  all  forms  the  best  soil,  each  correcting  and 
keeping  within  their  due  proportion  the  qualities  of  the 
other ;  thus,  in  a  clayey  soil  filtration  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  sand,  while  clay,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  consis- 
tency to  a  sandy  soil,  and  lime  loosens  the  texture  of  heavy 
lands,  and  corrects  the  coldness  occasioned  by  their  re- 
taining water.  The  fertilizing  property  of  our  soils,  how- 
ever, greatly  depends  upon  the  admixture  of  decayed 
toiimal  and  vegetable  matter. 

LESSON   LXXI. 

ALUM. 

Manufacture. — The  substance  known  as  alum  is  a  com- 
pound of  alumina,  or  the  base  of  clay,  united  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  proportion  of  potash  or  ammonia.  Jt  is  pre- 
pared from  a  dark  gray  slaty  clay,  termed  alum  shale,  or 
alum  slate.  This,  when  exposed  to  air  and  moisture,  grad- 
ually crumbles  to  pieces,  and  suffers  much  change  in  its 
character.  The  soluble  parts  are  then  dissolved  by  water; 
a  solution  containing  potash  is  added ;  on  boiling  away 
the  water,  the  alum  crystallizes, — it  is  purified  by  being 
again  dissolved  and  crystallized.  Many  varieties  of  the 
elate  require  to  be  burnt  before  use.  This  is  effected  by 
setting  it  on   fire  in  enormous  heaps,  containing,  in  some 


ALUM.  351 

cases,  many  thousand  tons.  Sometimes  tne  shale  possesses 
sufficient  inflammable  matter  to  barn  spontaneously;  in 
others,  small  coal  or  cinders  are  added. 

Properties. — Alum  is  a  transparent,  colorless,  saline 
substance,  readily  soluble  in  eighteen  times  its  weight  of 
cold  and  its  own  weight  of  boiUng  water,  the  excess  dis- 
solved by  hot  water  separating  in  crystals  as  the  solution 
cools.  When  the  crystallization  is  slowly  conducted,  the 
crystals  are  regular  octohedrons,  but  in  the  alum  of  com- 
merce they  are  more  or  less  connected  together  and  ir- 
regular in  form.  These  crystals  contain  nearly  half  their 
weight  of  water,  and,  when  heated,  the  alum  first  dis- 
solves in  this  water,  which,  if  the  heat  is  continued,  boils 
away,  leaving  a  dry  mass — the  burnt  alum  of  the  druggist. 

The  taste  of  alum  is  astringent,  but  somewhat  sweet- 
ish ;  when  swallowed,  it  has  an  astringent  action ;  and, 
although  of  value  as  a  medicine,  is  unwholesome  when  not 
required. 

Uses. — In  the  arts  alum  is  a  substance  of  great  value. 
It  is  much  employed  in  converting  skins  into  leather  (see 
Leather) ;  it  is  also  used  in  paper  making ;  in  the  manu- 
facture of  some  kinds  of  candles,  to  harden  and  whiten  the 
tallow ;  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing  it  is  absolutely  indis- 
pensable ;  and  it  is  employed  by  paper  hangers  in  making 
paste,  &Q. 

,  Alum  is  employed  by  bakers  in  the  manufacture  of 
wheaten  bread,  rendering  it  whiter  in  color,  and  causing 
the  loaves  to  separate  more  readily.  Its  chief  use,  how- 
ever, arises  from  the  fact  that  it  enables  inferior  flour, 
which   has   been    damaged   by   being   harvested    in   wet 


352  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    LXXII. 

weather,  and  would  otherwise  yield  a  clammy  bread,  to 
be  made  into  a  light,  s2:>ongy  loaf.  Such  bread  is,  how- 
ever, very  indigestible,  and  produces  dyspepsia. 

Linen  and  other  cloth,  steeped  in  a  solution  of  alum 
and  then  dried,  cannot  be  set  on  fire ;  hence  it  is  some- 
times used  for  making  curtains  and  other  fabrics  incom- 
bustible. 

LESSON  LXXIL 

EMERY. 

Occurrence, — Emery  is  found  in  shapeless  granular 
masses,  at  the  base  of  mountains,  in  several  of  the  islands 
of  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  The  chief  supply  is  obtained 
from  the  island  of  Naxos,  at  Cape  Emeri,  whence  its  name. 
A  considerable  quantity,  however,  is  procured  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Smyrna,  the  East  Indies,  and  in  some 
mines  in  Saxony.  In  Jersey  and  in  England  small  quanti- 
ties of  it  are  occasionally  found. 

Properties. — Emery  is  a  grayish  black,  or  brown, 
opaque  mineral,  with  a  glistening  lustre  and  an  uneven 
fracture.  Its  specific  gravity  is  ^tbout  4,000,  and  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  extreme  hardness,  inferior  only  to  that  of 
the  diamond. 

Preparation. — In  order  to  prepare  emery  for  use,  it  is 
first  crushed  under  heavy  iron  stampers,  then  ground  in 
steel  mills,  and  mixed  with  water ;  the  coarser  particles 
having  been  allowed  to  subside,  the  water  is  poured  off 
with  the  finer  portions;  these  after  a  time  sink,  and  are 
collected  for  use.     Sometimes  the  emery  is  burnt  or  caV 


KOTTEN    STONE   AND   TRIPOLI.  853 

cined  for  the  purpose  of  enabling    it    to   be  reduced  to 
powder  with  less  labor. 

Uses. — ^The  use  of  emery  depends  upon  its  extreme 
hardness,  which  enables  it,  when  in  a  state  of  fine  pow- 
der, to  be  used  by  lapidaries  for  grinding  and  polishing 
precious  stones ;  by  cutlers,  in  finishing  steel  instruments ; 
by  opticians,  for  polishing  glasses,  &c.  Sprinkled  over 
paper  or  stout  calico  which  has  been  previously  covered 
wuth  a  layer  of  glue,  it  forms  emery  paper  or  cloth ;  this 
is  much  employed  in  cleaning  iron  instruments  and  arti- 
cles of  domestic  use. 


LESSON   LXXIII. 

ROTTEN   STONE  AND   TRIPOLI. 

Occurrence  and  Properties. — Rotten  stone  and  tripoli 
are  two  minerals  resemblino^  each  other,  in  havinsc  their 
particles  in  a  state  of  very  fine  division.  Rotten  stone, 
which  is  found  in  considerable  quantity  in  Carmarthen- 
shire and  Breconshire,  South  Wales,  and  at  Ashford,  in 
Derbyshire,  England,  is  friable.  It  is  found  mixed  with 
pieces  of  black  marble,  and  it  has  recently  been  ascer- 
tained that  an  acid  existing  in  the  soil,  decomposes  the 
marble,  thus  producing  rotten  stone.  Tripoli  is  so  called 
from  its  being  first  found  in  that  country.  The  small  par. 
tides  of  both  are  very  hard ;  and  when  the  minerals  are 
reduced  to  powder  they  are  extensively  employed  m  pol- 
ishing metal  ai-ticles. 

Rotten   stone  is  not  found  except  in  England.     The 


354  FIFTH     STEP. ^LESSON    LXXIV. 

amount  obtained  yearly  barely  equals  400  tons ;  and  the 
annual  value  is  stated  at  about  750^. 

Tripoli  is  remarkable  as  consisting  almost  entirely  of 
the  shelly  coverings  of  small  animalcules,  their  length  not 
exceeding:  l-3500th  of  an  inch. 


•o 


LESSON    LXXIV. 

PUMICE   STONE. 

Occurrence  and  Projyerties. — Pumice  is  a  stone  of  vol- 
canic origin,  which  is  found  in  large  quantities  at  Campo 
Bianco,  about  thirty  miles  from  the  port  of  Lipari ;  it  is 
also  abundant  in  the  island  of  Vulcano.  Pumice  is  a  po- 
rous stone,  sufficiently  light  to  float  upon  water.  It  is 
formed  of  silky  fibres,  which  are  interlaced  in  all  directions. 
In  color  it  is  usually  gray  or  white.  To  the  touch  it  is 
harsh,  and,  although  brittle,  is  sufficiently  hard  to  scratch 
glass  and  steel. 

Uses. — The  use  of  pumice  in  the  arts  is  entirely  as  a 
polishing  material ;  it  is  employed  in  smoothing  wood, 
glass,  slate,  stones,  marble,  &c. ;  by  painters  it  is  much 
used  for  rubbing  down  the  roughness  on  old  work  previous 
to  new  painting.  It  is  also  employed  in  smoothing  leather, 
vellum,  and  skins,  during  their  manufacture  ;  and  in  some 
countries  it  is  regularly  used  for  smoothing  the  skin  of  the 
hands,  and  rubbing  corns  on  the  feet.  In  the  East,  the 
domes  of  temples  have  been  built  with  it  in  consequence 
of  its  great  lightness. 


SLATE.  355 

LESSON  LXXy. 

SLATE. 

Slate  is  a  mineral  substance  ;  it  is  never  found  crys- 
tallized, but  generally  of  a  foliated  structure ;  it  is  either 
of  a  gray,  blueish,  or  blackish  color,  often  streaked  by  a 
different  tint  from  that  of  the  ground  ;  it  is  opaque,  dull, 
compact,  and  brittle.  It  consists  chiefly  of  alumine,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  silex.  It  is  dug  out  of  quarries  ;  when 
first  taken  fiom  them,  it  is  comparatively  soft,  but  becomes 
hard  by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  used  for  writing  upon, 
for  w^hetstones,  and  for  roofing  houses.  In  order  to  ascer- 
tain its  fitness  for  the  latter  purpose,  it  is  weighed  as  soon 
as  it  is  excavated,  and  is  then  put  into  water  for  some 
days ;  if  after  bemg  well  dried  it  is  found  to  have  increased 
in  weight,  it  is  laid  aside  as  unsuitable  for  the  purpose,  the 
trial  having  proved  that  it  was  porous,  and  consequently 
absorbent.  Such  slate  would  not  only  allow  water  to  pass 
through  it,  and  so  destroy  the  woodwork  of  buildings,  but 
it  would  also  be  liable  to  be  covered  with  lichens  and  moss, 
in  consequence  of  the  moisture  which  it  retains.  If  its 
quality  is  ascertained  to  be  good,  it  is  split  into  thin  plates 
for  roofing.  The  tiles  are  fastened  to  the  rafters  by  pegs 
driven  through  holes,  which  have  been  previously  made  in 
them ;  the  edge  of  one  is  laid  over  the  other,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  scales  of  fishes.  Slate  which  is  dark-colored, 
compact,  and  solid,  is  the  best  adapted  for  writing  upon. 
In  order  to  prepare  the  slate  for  this  purpose,  it  is  ren- 
dered smooth   with    an   iron   instrument,  and   it   is   then 


356  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   LXXVI. 

ground  with  sandstone,  and  slightly  polished.  That  which 
is  softer  and  more  friable,  is  used  for  pencils. 

The  principal  slate  quarries  in  the  United  States  are  in 
Vermont,  'New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  Quar- 
ries of  great  extent  are  also  worked  in  various  parts  of  the 
British  Isles. 

The  school  slates,  when  split  out  from  the  blocks,  are 
taken  to  the  factory,  where  a  man  provided  with  patterns 
of  the  six  sizes  usually  made,  marks  out  upon  each  sheet 
such  slates  as  it  will  make  to  the  best  advantage.  An- 
other workman  then  cuts  them  out  with  a  circular  saw, 
made  of  soft  steel,  and  they  are  dressed,  smoofehed,  and 
polished  by  a  third.  Before  machinery  was  applied  to 
these  operations  they  were  shaved  out  like  shingles.  The 
smoothing  is  finished  by  rubbing  the  slate  with  a  rag  filled 
with  its  own  dust.  The  slate  is  now  washed  and  is  ready 
for  the  frame.  Slates  are  either  quarried  by  blasting,  or, 
where  practicable,  by  splitting  them  off  with  large  wedges 


SILICIOUS    MINERALS. 
LESSON  L'XXVI. 

SAND   AND   SANDSTONE. 

Occurrence, — Sand  is  a  substance  abundantly  distrib- 
uted, forming  in  many  places  the  bottom  and  shores  of  the 
ocean,  and  not  unfrequently  the  beds  of  rivers ;  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  it  often  forms  tracts  of  vast  extent, 
which  are  usually  termed  deserts,  such  as  those  of  Arabia 
and  Africa. 


SAND   AND    SANDSTONE.  Z5l 

Sand  is  also  found  in  beds,  or  layers,  alternating  with 
other  substances.  When  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
sand  forms  that  kind  of  country  found  in  some  parts  of 
Europe,  termed  heath,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  sterile 
character  and  the  nature  of  the  plants  (chiefly  heath,  furze, 
and  ferns,)  growing  on  it.  When  the  grains  of  sand  are 
cemented  together  into  a  firm  mass,  they  form  the  valuable 
stone  called  sandstone,  many  kinds  of  which  are  found  in 
this  country,  where  they  are  extensively  used  for  building. 
From  the  hardness  of  the  grains  of  sand,  they  are  also 
valuable  as  grind  stones,  mill  stones,  scythe  stones,  and 
from  their  porosity  they  are  frequently  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  filters. 

The  variety  known  as  Potsdam  sandstone  can  be  quar- 
ried in  slabs  of  any  required  size,  and  is  much  used  for 
paving. 

Properties. — Sand  consists  of  silica,  in  small  rough 
grains  of  various  sizes.  When  pure,  it  is  white  or  color- 
less, but  it  is  usually  tinted  by  the  admixture  of  other 
materials.  It  is  perfectly  insoluble  in  water,  and  infusible 
in  fire. 

Uses. — Sand  is  a  substance  of  great  value.  It  is  found 
in  all  fertile  soils,  rendering  them  sufficiently  porous  to 
allow  water  to  percolate  and  the  air  to  gain  access  to  the 
roots  of  the  growing  plants,  and  it  is  frequently  added 
with  great  advantage  to  heavy,  clay  soils.  Pure  sand,  as 
before  mentioned,  is  unfitted  to  the  growth  of  plants. 

In  artificial  processes  sand  is  used  extensively;  the 
whiter  kinds  are  employed  in  glass  making,  the  coarser 
in  making  mortar  and  bricks.     From  its  infusible  nature. 


358  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   LXXVII. 

and  the  property  that  some  kinds  possess  of  forming  a 
mass  when  firmly  pressed  together,  it  is  used  for  making 
the  moulds  into  which  melted  metals  are  poured  in  the 
process  of  casting ;  and  its  hard,  gritty  nature  renders  it 
useful  I'n  cleaning  and  scouring  coarse  metal  and  other 
articles. 

LESSON  LXXVII. 

GLASS. 

Materials. — The  substances  which  form  the  basis  of 
glass  are  sand,  and  one  or  other  of  the  alkalies,  potash, 
or  soda.  The  purest  variety  of  sand  is  obtained  from 
Lanesborough,  Mass.  Other  qualities  are  procured  from 
various  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  essential  that  the  sand 
be  perfectly  free  from  colored  impurities,  otherwise  the 
glass  receives  a  tinge.  Red  lead  and  litharge  are  era- 
ployed  in  certain  kinds  of  glass,  as  they  are  found  to 
render  it  more  readily  fusible  and  tenacious  when  melted. 
They  have,  however,  the  disadvantage  of  rendering  it 
softer,  and,  therefore,  more  liable  to  be  scratched.  In 
addition  to  these  substances,  small  portions  of  manganese, 
arsenic,  borax,  and  other  minerals,  are  occasionally  em- 
ployed to  produce  more  ready  fusion  and  to  remove 
color,  and,  in  almost  all  cases,  a  considerable  amount  of 
broken  glass,  or  cullet,  as  it  is  termed,  is  added.  In  the 
coarser  kinds  lime  is  also  used  in  place  of  a  dearer  alkali. 

The  localities  of  the  glass  .manufacture  are  determined 
by  the  nearness  to  coal  fields,  and  by  the  ease  of  obtaining 
the  materials  required ;  for  these  reasons,  it  is  frequently 


GLASS.  359 

established  in  seaports.  Newcastle,  Bristol,  and  Glasgow, 
with  Birmingham,  are  the  chief  towns  in  which  it  is  car- 
ried on  in  England. 

It  is  also  manufactured  in  different  sections  of  our  own 
country,  particularly  in  South  Boston,  East  Cambridge, 
and  Sandwich,  Mass. ;  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  where  flint  glass  is 
manufactured.  The  most  important  manufactories  of  win- 
dow glass  are  located  in  the  southern  part  of  New  Jersey, 
about  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  and  the  river  towns  below  and  in 
central  New  York.  Tha  only  manufactory  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  plate  glass,  is  at  Lenox,  Berkshire  Co.,  Mass. 
Our  best  plate  glass  is  imported  from  England  and 
France. 

Preparation. — The  materials,  having  been  mixed  in  the 
requisite  proportions,  are  made  to  unite  together  by  expo- 
sure to  a  moderate  heat,  which  is  increased  until  they  melt 
into  a  pasty  mass,  termed  frit.  The  ingredients  of  flint 
glass,  however,  which  are  of  the  purest  kind,  do  not 
always  require  to  be  fritted.  The  materials  are  melted 
together  in  large  crucibles,  or  pots,  as  they  are  usually 
termed.  These  are  made  of  the  most  infusible  materials, 
and  each  pot  is  capable  of  holding  about  fourteen  hundred- 
weight of  glass.  These  are  built  into  a  dome-shaped  fur- 
nace, with  openings  in  the  sides,  corresponding  to  the 
situation  of  each  pot.  In  about  forty-eight  hours  after 
having  been  placed  in  the  furnace,  the  glass  is  in  a  state 
of  the  most  perfect  fusion,  and  is  ready  to  be  worked  into 
any  desired  form. 

Manufacture  — As  the  mode  of  manufacture  varies 
with  the  kind  of  glass,  and  the  purposes  for  which  it  is 


360  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON    LXXVII. 

designed,  it  will  be  described  under  the  heads  of  flint, 
crown,  and  plate  glass. 

Flint  glass  is  formed  of  sand,  potash,  or  pearlash,  and 
litharge,  or  red  lead,  and  is  manufactured  into  the  im- 
mense variety  of  articles  required  for  domestic  use,  by  the 
aid  of  a  hollow  tube  and  a  few  very  simple  tools.  The 
ease  with  which  it  is  worked  arises  from  its  possessing  an 
extraordinary  combination  \)f  properties,  being  excessively 
ductile  and  tenacious,  and  of  so  soft  a  consistency  that  it 
may  be  bent,  blown,  pressed,  or  extended,  and,  in  short, 
made  to  assume  any  form  which  the  will  of  the  workman  dic- 
tates. The  tube  is  dipped  into  the  melted  glass,  and  care 
is  taken  that  the  quantity  collected  on  the  end  of  it,  is  suf- 
ficient for  the  desired  article.  The  mouth  of  the  workman 
is  then  applied  to  the  other  end  of  the  tube,  and  the  glass 
is  blown  into  a  hollow  form,  being  either  placed  in  a  mould, 
or  rolled,  pressed,  cut,  twisted,  &c.,  so  as  to  assume  the 
form  required.  No  substance  possesses  in  so  remarkable  a 
degree  the  plastic  property.  After  the  articles  are  formed, 
they  are  placed  in  the  annealing  oven,  at  a  great  heat, 
which  is  gradually  diminished,  by  which  means  they  lose 
that  liability  to  crack  in  sudden  changes  of  temperature 
which  they  would  possess  if  cooled  suddenly. 

Crown  glass,  which  is  ordinarily  used  for  windows,  is 
harder  than  flint  glass.  No  preparations  of  lead  are  used 
in  its  manufacture  ;  it  therefore  requires  a  higher  tempera- 
ture for  fusion.  The  materials  are  sand  and  soda,  or  soda 
ash,  with  small  quantities  of  borax,  arsenic,  and  manga- 
nese ;  these  are  fritted  for  about  four  hours.  On  melting 
the  fritted  materials,  a  quantity  of  saline  matter  rises  to 


GLASS.  361 

the  top,  which  is  skimmed  off,  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  broken  glass,  or  cullet^  as  it  is  termed,  is  added,  and  in 
about  forty  hours  the  glass  is  ready  for  working.  The 
workman  takes  about  ten  or  eleven  pounds  on  the  end  of 
an  iron  tube,  blows  it  into  a  large,  hollow,  pear-shaped 
form  ;  then,  by  pressure  against  a  plane  surface,  flattens 
the  part  opposite  the  tube ;  an  iron  rod,  called  a  punt,  is 
then  dipped  in  the  melted  glass  of  the  furnace,  and  at- 
tached to  the  centre  of  the  flattened  part,  and  the  iron 
tube  is  removed  by  wetting  the  glass  around  it ;  the  soft 
yielding  glass  is  now  carried  by  the  punt  and  exposed  to 
the  heat  of  a  furnace,  the  workman  twirling  it  round  with 
gradually  increasing  rapidity,  which  causes  the  hole  left  by 
the  removal  of  the  tube  to  enlarge  in  size,  and  at  length 
the  whole  flattens  out  into  a  plane  surface  of  four  or  Ave 
feet  in  diameter,  of  uniform  thickness,  except  where  the 
iron  rod  is  attached  in  the  centre  ;  a  lump  is  there  formed 
called  the  hulVs  eye  ;  the  glass  is  then  annealed,  and  each 
disc  divided  into  two  parts  for  the  convenience  of 
carriage. 

The  dark  green  glass  used  for  wine  bottles  is  made 
without  lead,  and  of  the  coarsest  materials ;  common  river 
sand  and  soap-boilers'  waste,  consisting  of  lime  and  a 
small  proportion  of  alkali,  being  usually  employed. 

Plate  glass  is  a  very  pure  glass,  capable  of  flowing 
freely  when  melted,  without  streaks  or  air  bubbles.  The 
materials  forming  it  are  the  w^iitest  sand,  soda,  small  por- 
tions of  lime  and  the  minerals  manganese  and  cobalt,  to- 
gether with  broken  plate  glass,  the  waste  of  previous 
operations.  The  glass,  when  perfectly  fused,  is  poured 
16 


362  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   LXXVII. 

upon  an  iron  table  of  the  size  required,  and  the  thickness  is 
regulated  by  the  height  to  which  the  sides  of  the  table  are 
raised.  Immediately  after  it  is  poured  out,  the  rnelied 
glass  is  flattened  by  having  a  metal  roller  passed  over  the 
upper  surface ;  it  is  then  annealed  for  several  days ;  after 
this  it  is  ground  perfectly  smooth  by  rubbing  two  plates 
together  with  finely  powdered  flint  and  water  between 
them  ;  each  plate  is  again  ground  with  emery  powder,  and 
finally  polished  by  a  polishing  powder,  applied  with  a 
woollen  rubber. 

The  process  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  beads  is  inter- 
esting from  its  great  simplicity.  Tubes  of  glass  of  the 
required  color  are  made  by  blowing  cylinders,  which  are 
drawn  out  while  still  plastic  to  the  required  length. 
These  tubes  are  cut  up  into  very  short  pieces  on  the 
upright  edge  of  a  fixed  chisel.  They  are  then  stirred  over 
a  furnace  in  a  mixture  of  fine  sand  and  wood  ashes,  heated 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  fragments  of  glass  are  softened, 
and  lose  their  angular  and  sharp-edged  form. 

Colored  glasses  are  produced  by  the  addition  of  small 
quantities  of  various  mineral  ingredients  to  the  melted 
mass.  A  small  quantity  of  soot  gives  a  yellow  color ;  pre- 
parations of  copper  a  red  tint ;  blue  is  produced  by  co- 
balt ;  manganese  gives  an  amethyst ;  green  is  produced 
by  iron,  as  in  the  common  bottle  glass ;  tin  produces  an 
opaque  white,  and  gold  an  exquisitely  beautiful  ruby  tint. 

Projyerties. — The  peculiar  properties  of  glass  in  a  melt- 
ed state  have  been  already  alluded  to.  When  solid,  it  is 
strikingly  distinguished  by  its  beautiful  transparency,  hard- 
ness, and  freedom  from  porosity  ;  its  lustre,  which  is  so 


GLASS.  303 

characteristic  that  it  is  termed  vitreous ;  its  being  insoluble 
and  incorrodible  by  all  substances  in  ordinary  use,  even  the 
strongest  acids;  it  is  brittle  when  in  thick  masses,  but 
when  in  very  thin  threads  it  possesses  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  elasticity,  which,  unlike  that  of  any  other  sub- 
stance, does  not  seem  impaired  by  repeated  bending. 

Uses. — The  uses  of  glass  in  domestic  economy  are  well 
known.  Its  employment  for  making  vessels  to  hold  liquids 
depends  greatly  on  its  transparency  and  polish,  the  former 
allowing  the  contents  to  be  seen,  and  the  latter  enabling  it 
to  be  readily  cleaned  after  use.  Its  employment  as  a  ma- 
terial for  glazing  windows  depends  on  its  transparency 
and  insolubility,  which  enable  it  to  admit  the  light 
and  warmth  of  the  sun,  while  it  excludes  the  wind 
and  rain. 

Glass  is  frequently  ground  upon  revolving  wheels  of 
sandstone,  or  pohshing  slate,  into  small  circular  pieces,  with 
one  or  both  sides  concave  or  convex  ;  in  these  forms  it 
alters  the  direction  of  the  rays  of  light  which  pass  through 
it,  either  bringing  them  to  one  point  or  focus,  or  dispersing 
them.  These  glasses  are  termed  lenses,  and  are  employed 
in  making  optical  instruments — as  microscopes,  telescopes, 
&c.,  and  also  for  spectacles. 

It  is  our  familiarity  with  glass  that  alone  renders  us 
usually  so  insensible  to  the  great  value  and  exceeding 
beauty  of  this  extraordinary  substance. 


364  FIFTH    STEP. — ^LESSON   LXXVUI. 


LESSON  LXXVIIL 

MICA. 

Occurrence  and  Properties. — Mica  is  a  mineral  xixu\ 
possesses  the  property  of  being  readily  split  into  exceed 
ingly  thin  layers,  which  are  transparent,  possess  a  pearl}- 
metallic  lustre,  and  are  flexible  and  elastic.  The  gHsten. 
ing  appearance  of  granite,  and  some  other  minerals,  is  dut 
to  the  presence  of  small  scales  of  this  substance. 

It  occurs  in  large  masses  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
especially  in  Siberia,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  -It  is  also 
found  in  New  Hampshire,  and  some  of  the  other  States, 
and  Canada,  in  sufiicient  quantities  to  be  quarried  for 
economical  purposes. 

Uses. — The  transparency  and  flexibility  of  this  sub- 
stance have  led  to  its  employment  as  a  substitute  for  glass, 
particularly  under  circumstances  where  it  is  exposed  to 
violence ;  hence  it  has  been  used  in  Russia  for  vessels  of 
w^ar,  in  which  glass  windows  were  apt  to  be  broken  by 
the  concussion  caused  by  firing  the  guns.  As  it  is  not 
altered  by  exposure  to  a  very  liigh  temperature,  it  is  not 
unfrequently  used  to  form  transparent  doors  to  stoves  and 
lanterns,  and  it  is  now  largely  employed  to  form  covers 
over  gaslights,  to  protect  the  flame  from  drauglits  of  air, 
as  well  as  to  prevent  the  smoke  rising  to  and  soiling  the 
ceiling. 


GRANITE.  365 


LESSON  LXXIX. 

GKANITE. 

Granite  is  a  ooinpound  rock,  formed  by  an  aggregation 
of  grains  of  quart's,  felspar,  and  mica.  The  proportions  in 
which  these  component  parts  occur  vary  much  ;  but  felspar 
is  the  predominating,  and  mica  the  least  considerable,  of 
these  ingredients.  Ihe  grains  are  also  of  different  magni- 
tudes ;  when  they  are  large,  the  granite  is  of  a  very  coarse 
texture ;  but  sometimes  they  are  so  small,  as  almost  to 
give  the  appearance  of  a  uniform  mass.  These  circum- 
stances occasion  a  great  variety  in  the  character  of  granite. 
When  hornblend  occurs  m  the  place  of  mica,  the  rock  is 
called  syenite,  from  Syene^  in  Upper  Egypt,  where  it  was 
first  known  and  quarried.  Some  felspar  is  liable  to  decom- 
position, and  when  this  is  the  prevailing  substance  in  the 
rocks,  they  yield  to  the  effects  of  the  weather,  and  become 
more  or  less  of  a  rounded  form;  but  when  the  granite  is 
hard  and  close-grained,  which  is  more  usually  the  case, 
they  rise  in  bold  prominent  peaks,  giving  grandeur  and 
boldness  to  the  scenery.  Granite  is  found  in  most  coun- 
tries where  there  are  mountains  of  an}''  .'3onsiderable  eleva- 
tion. It  forms  the  flanks  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Andes,  and  it  may  be  traced  along  the  eastrv'n  spurs  of  the 
Appalachian  range,  through  the  Southern  States.  It  is 
finely  developed  through  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 
The  Stone  mountain  of  the  latter  State  is  a  naked  mass  of 
granite,  rising  four  or  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  is  so  steep  that  it  can  bf  ^s^'^-^^^'^d 


366  FIFTH    STEP. ^LESSON   LXXX. 

only  at  one  point.  All  New  England  abounds  in  granite, 
but  the  most  famous  quarries  are  along  the  coast  of 
Maine,  and  at  Quincy,  Mass. ;  from  the  latter  place  it  is 
exported  for  building  purposes  to  the  principal  cities  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  West 
Indies. 

Granite  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  great  hardness 
and  durability ;  it  is  used  for  building,  paving,  submarine 
works,  mill  stones,  troughs,  and  steps. 


INFLAMMABLE  MINERALS.      " 
LESSOIT    LXXX. 

SULPHUR. 

Occurrence. — Sulphur  occurs  native  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  all  active  volcanoes,  from  which  it  is  discharged  in 
vapoi-,  and  condenses  in  considerable  quantities  in  the 
gravel  and  ashes  of  the  interior  of  the  craters.  At  Pouz- 
zales,  near  Naples,  the  mixture  of  sulphur  and  gravel  is 
dug  up  and  distilled  to  extract  the  sulphur.  The*  gravel  is 
then  returned  to  its  original  place,  and  in  the  course  of 
years  becomes  so  far  charged  with  sulphur  as  to  serve  the 
same  purpose  again.  It  is  also  found  more  abundantly  in 
beds,  as  in  Sicily,  from  whence  almost  all  the  native  sul- 
phur of  commerce  is  obtained. 

Sulphur,  when  combined  with  metals,  forms  minerals, 
which  are  termed  sulphurets ;  these  occur  in  most  parts 
of  the  world ;    some  of  them — as  the  sulphurets  of  lead, 


SULPHUR.  367 

copper,  and  zinc — are  valuable  ores,  the  sulphur  itself  be- 
ing burnt  away  and  lost  during  the  preparation  of  the 
metals.  One  sulphuret — that  of  iron — also  termed  iron 
pyrites,  is  useless  as  an  iron  ore,  but  of  great  value  as  a 
source  of  sulphur,  containing  rather  more  than  half  its 
weight. 

When  this  sulphuret  is  lieated  in  the  open  air,  the  sul- 
phur burns  away  with  a  blue  flame  ;  but  if  it  is  heated  in 
close  vessels,  half  the  sulphur  it  contains  is  driven  off"  in 
vapor.  This  is  collected  in  a  solid  or  liquid  state  in  a  cold 
part  of  the  apparatus ;  the  residue  of  the  mineral  is  con- 
verted, by  mere  exposure  to  the  air,  into  green  vitriol,  a 
l^roj^aration  of  iron  largely  used  in  dyeing  black  and  in 
making  ink. 

The  usual  form  in  which  sulphur  is  prepared  is  in  cylin- 
drical sticks,  known  as  roll  sulphur,  or  roll  brimstone. 
These  are  formed  by  casting  it  in  hollow  wooden  moulds, 
so  made  as  to  divide  into  two  parts  longitudinally. 

Properties. — Sulphur  is  a  mineral  of  a  bright  yellow 
color,  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  water,  in  which  it  is  quite 
insoluble ;  tasteless,  and  w^ithout  smell  when  cold,  but 
odorous  when  rubbed  or  warmed :  it  is  brittle,  and  a  very 
bad  conductor  of  heat,  so  that,  if  a  roll  is  grasped  in  the 
warm  hand,  the  outer  part  only  becomes  heated,  and,  in- 
creasing in  size,  is  forced  away  from  the  inner  portion,  and 
the  mass  breaks. 

Heated  to  a  degree  somewhat  above  that  of  boiling 
water  (232  degrees  Fahrenheitt)  sulphur  melts,  forming  an 
orange-colored  Hmpid  fluid ;  if  the  heat  is  increased,  its 
color  becomes  a  deep  red,  and  it  thickens  to  such  an  ex- 


368  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON    LXXX. 

tent  tliat  the  vessel  may  be  quickly  inverted  without  its 
being  spilled;  if  in  this  state  it  is  poured  into  water,  it 
forms  an  elastic  soft  solid,  wliich,  after  a  time,  becomes 
brittle.  Heated  to  a  still  higher  degree,  it  becomes  some- 
what more  fluid  ;  and  if  in  a  close  vessel,  it  boils  away  in 
vapor,  which,  by  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  cold,  may  be 
condensed  into  a  solid  or  liquid  state.  Heated  in  the  air, 
it  takes  fire,  burning  with  a  blue  flame,  and  producing  a 
very  irritating,  poisonous  gas  or  vapor.  Sulphur  has  a 
great  disposition  to  unite  with  metals ;  this  may  be  shown 
by  carrying  a  piece  in  the  pocket  with  silver  coins,  when 
the  formation  of  a  black  sulphuret  of  silver  rapidly  takes 
place.  The  same  result  occurs  if  an  egg  is  eaten  with  a 
silver  spoon,  as  sulphur  is  contained  in  the  yolk. 

Uses. — The  uses  of  sulphur  in  the  arts  are  of  the  high- 
est importance.  The  manufacture  of  soda  from  salt,  dye- 
ing and  bleaching,  the  making  of  leather,  gun{X)wder,  and 
congreve  matches,  are  but  a  few  of  those  manufactures 
which  mainly  depend  on  sulphur,  or  its  compounds,  for 
existence. 

The  ready  inflammability  of  sulphur  leads  to  its  use  in 
the  making  of  lucifer  matches,  which  are  first  dipped  in 
melted  sulphur  before  the  compound  of  phosphorus  is 
added,  as  the  latter,  from  its  rapid  burning,  would  be  un- 
able to  set  fire  to  the  match  if  unassisted  by  the  brimstone. 
The  same  property  leads  to  its  employment  in  gunpowder, 
to  which  it  imparts  the  power  of  igniting  with  the  slightest 
spark.  The  poisonous  fumes  which  arise  from  its  burning 
are  largely  employed  in  bleaching  silk  in  the  raw  state, 
isinglass,  walnuts,  straw  plait,  and  bonnets ;  it  is  also  occa- 


PLUMBAGO.  369 

sionally  used  in  destroying  rats  and  vermin  when  they  have 
accumulated  in  ships  and  other  close  places. 

Its  fusibility  leads  to  its  employment  in  taking  casts 
from  medals,  coins,  and  similar  objects,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  used  in  its  most  liquid  state. 

Flowers  of  sulphur,  which  are  formed  when  the  vapors 
arising  during  its  distillation  are  allowed  to  condense  in  a 
solid  form,  are  much  used  as  a  domestic  medicine,  and 
enter  also  into  the  preparation  of  vermilion  and  other 
chemical  substances. 

Oil  of  vitriol,  or  sulphuric  acid,  an  exceedingly  corro- 
sive, poisonous  liquid,  is  made  by  burning  sulphur  in 
furnaces  constructed  for  the  purpose,  the  combustion  being 
assisted  by  the  presence  of  other  substances.  Some  idea 
of  the  use  of  this  acid  in  the  arts  and  manufactures  may  be 
gained  from  the  fact  that  300,000  tons  are  annually  made 
in  England,  the  value,  at  the  lowest  computation,  amount- 
ing to  several  hundred  thousand  pounds. 

It  is  the  most  extensively  used  in  the  arts  of  all  the 
acids,  and  is  an  important  branch  of  manufacture  in  chem- 
ical works  in  Philadelphia,  Newark,  N.  J.,  Roxbury,  Mass., 
and  other  parts  of  the  country. 

LESSON  LXXXI. 

PLUMBAGO. 

Occurrence  and  Properties. — Plumbago,  which  is  also 

"termed  graphite,  and  black  lead,  occurs  in  many  parts  of 

the  world ;  large  quantities  are  found  in  Ceylon,  the  East 

Indies,  and  several  localities  in  the  United  States ;  particu- 

16* 


870  FIFTH   STEP. LESSON   LXXXI. 

larly  at  Sturbridge,  Mass.,  Brandon,  Vt.,  Fishkill,  and 
Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.  In  England  the  most  celebrated  mine 
was  at  Borrowdale,  in  Cumberland,  as  much  as  100,000^. 
liaving  been  realized  from  it  in  a  year ;  but  the  mine  is 
now  closed.  Plumbago  is  of  a  dark  leaden  color,  having  a 
dull  metallic  appearance.  To  the  touch  it  is  very  smooth; 
and  when  placed  between  rubbing  surfaces,  enables  them 
to  glide  easily  over  one  another.  It  adheres  to  substances 
on  which  it  is  rubbed,  staining  them  of  a  dark  color,  and 
imparting  its  own  peculiar  appearance.  It  is  perfectly 
insoluble  in  water,  and  is  quite  infusible  in  the  fire  ;  but 
heated  strongly,  and  exposed  to  a  current  of  air,-it  slowly 
consumes. 

Uses. — ^The  purer  varieties  of  plumbago  are  entirely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  black  lead  pencils,  being  cut  up 
by  fine  saws  into  thin  slips,  which  are  glued  into  grooves 
cut  in  cedar  wood.  A  method  has  also  been  devised  of 
purifying  the  more  gritty  varieties,  and  condensing  the 
powder  into  blocks,  from  which  slices  are  cut  that  are  as 
good  as  the  best  original  specimens.  The  leads  for  pencils 
intended  for  the  finest  work,  before  being  placed  in  the 
"wood,  are  heated,  and  then  immersed  in  hot  wax  or  suet. 
From  the  dearness  of  the  finest  plumbago,  compositions  of 
clay,  with  black  lead  and  other  substances,  are  substituted 
in  the  cheaper  pencils. 

The  harder  pencils  have  only  half  as  much  graphite 
powder  as  clay;  softer  ones  have  equal  parts  of  each.  Tlie 
hardest  pencils,  however,  are  made  of  an  alloy  of  metallic 
lead,  antimony,  and  mercury.  Common  pencils  are  made 
of  graphite  powder,  mixed  with  melted  sulphur,  and  run 


COAL.  371 

into  moulds.  Gum  arable  and  resin  are  sometimes  used  as 
ingredients. 

A  large  quantity  of  black  lead  is  employed  in  polishing 
cast  iron  work,  particularly  stoves  and  ranges,  giving  to 
them  a  uniform  color,  and  concealing  any  rust  they  may 
have  on  the  surface. 

Finely  powdered,  it  is  frequently  used  instead  of  grease 
to  prevent  the  friction  between  rubbing  surfaces  ;  hence  it 
is  not  un frequently  applied  to  wooden  screws,  &c.,  &c.  It 
is  also  a  valuable  material  for  crucibles  and  portable  fur- 
naces.    It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  lampblack. 

LESSON    LXXXII. 

COAL. 

Coal  is  of  two  kinds,  anthracite  and  bituminous  ;  the 
former  being  the  most  condensed  and  the  richest  in  car- 
bon. Coal  may  be  considered  as  a  mineral,  both  from  its 
subterraneous  situation  and  the  qualities  which  it  possess- 
es ;  many  circumstances,  however,  justify  the  now  preva- 
lent opinion  that  it  is  of  vegetable  origin  :  the  following 
are,  perhaps,  the  most  convincing.  Carbon,  which  is  the 
chief  constituent  of  all  vegetable  matter,  particularly  wood, 
composes  three-fourths  of  this  substance.  Coal  is  also 
found  in  the  various  stages  of  mineralization.  Sometimes 
it  possesses  a  completely  fibrous  texture  and  ligneous 
appearance,  even  the  knots  of  wood  being  discernible, 
while  the  same  bed  produces  specimens  of  perfect  mineral 
coal.  Some  remarkable  instances  of  this  have  been  found 
in   the   coal  mines   of  Pennsylvania ;    the  roots  of  trees 


372  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON   LXXXII. 

were  imbedded  in  fire  clay,  and  forming  the  substance  of 
them  (which  generally  underhes  the  coal  measures),  while 
the  trunks  passed  into  the  anthracite  beds,  and  almost  im- 
perceptibly from  these  into  the  bituminous  coal.  In  some 
instances  the  bark  only  was  converted  into  coal,  while  the 
woody  texture  of  the  interior  was  still  plainly  to  be  seen. 
In  Ireland  a  standing  forest  has  been  discovered  at  the 
depth  of  one  hundred  feet  below  the  soil.  To  this  we 
may  add  the  inflammability  of  this  substance  ;  the  numer- 
ous vegetable  remains  and  impressions  that  accompany  it ; 
and  that  it  has  never  been  discovered  above  the  line  to 
which  vegetation  reaches.  These  vegetable  remains  gen- 
erally belong  to  extinct  species,  and  difler  so  much  from 
any  living  species  that  they  cannot  always  be  referred  even 
to  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 

Coal  is  of  a  black  color,  bright,  and  frequently  irrides- 
cent ;  the  structure  is  slaty  ;  it  occurs  always  amorphous  ; 
it  is  very  combustible,  a  quality  which  few  minerals  pos- 
sess. The  places  from  whence  it  is  taken  are  called  coal 
mines  ;  they  abound  in  diiferent  portions  of  the  world ; 
especially  in  the  United  States,  England,  and  Belgium, 
and  have  contributed  much  to'  the  wealth  of  these  coun- 
tries. Both  the  persons  employed  in  the  mines,  and  the 
vessels  which  transport  the  coals,  are  called  colliers  ;  the 
place  where  the  trade  is  carried  on,  a  colliery.  The  access 
to  coal  mines  is  generally  through  a  narrow,  perpendicular 
tunnel  called  a  shafts  up  which  the  workmen  and  coals  are 
drawn  by  machmery.  The  mines  at  Whitehaven,  England, 
are  some  of  the  most  extraordinary  in  the  world.  The 
principal  entrance  is  by  an  opening  at  the  bottom  of  a  hill. 


COAL.  873 

through  a  long  sloping  passage  which  is  hewn  in  the  rock, 
and  leads  to  the  lowest  vein  or  bed  of  coal ;  the  descent  is 
chiefly  through  spacious  galleries  intei-secting  each  other, 
formed  by  the  excavation  of  the  coal,  large  pillars  of  which 
are  left  to  support  the  ponderous  roof.  These  mines  are 
very  deep,  and  are  extended  under  the  bed  of  the  sea,  even 
to  where  the  depth  of  the  water  is  sufficiently  great  to  ad- 
mit ships  of  burden.  In  these  mines  there  are  three  strata 
of  coal,  which  lie  considerably  apart  from  one  another,  and 
are  made  to  communicate  by  pits.  Miners  are  frequently 
impeded  in  their  progress  by  veins  of  hard  rock  called 
dylces^  and  the  coal  is  seldom  found  in  a  direct  line  on  the 
other  side  of  them ;  to  ascertain  its  precise  situation  is 
often  a  work  of  considerable  labor  and  expense.  Coal  is 
generally  situated  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  and  in  hollows, 
which  vary  much  in  extent ;  it  rarely  lies  much  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

Several  dangers  attend  the  labor  of  miners ;  the  great' 
est  is  that  arising  from  fire  damp,  which  is  occasioned  by 
the  hydrogen  gas  or  inflammable  air  produced  in  the  mine, 
and  which,  when  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  explodes 
with  great  violence  if  brought  into  contact  with  any 
lighted  substance.  To  avoid  this  danger,  safety  lamps  are 
used,  which  were  invented  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy.  They 
are  of  a  very  simple  construction,  consisting  of  wire  gauze 
so  closely  interwoven,  that  gas  of  sufficient  quantity  to  cause 
ignition  cannot  enter  them.  Another  danger  arises  from 
the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  fixed  air,  which, 
being  heavier  than  the  common  air,  occupies  the  lower 
part  of  the  mines,  and  occasions  death  by  suflfocation. 


374  FIFTH    STEP. — ^LESSON   LXXXIII. 

Coal  is  used  to  raise  the  temperature  of  rooms ;  to  cook 
food ;  to  supply  the  fuel  for  railway  locomotives,  ocean 
steamers,  manufactories  (particularly  where  steam  is  re- 
quired), and  in  the  working  of  metals.  Bituminous  coal 
furnishes  us  with  the  gas  so  much  used,  which  is  the  sub- 
stance called  hydrogen,  and  exists  in  coal  in  union  with 
carbon ;  it  is  easily  driven  away  or  volatilized  by  heating 
the  coal  in  a  close  place,  and  when  caught  and  preserved, 
it  forms  the  gas  now  used  to  light  our  streets  and  build- 
ings ;  when  this  has  been  extracted  from  the  coal,  the 
residue  is  called  coke^  which  is  employed  where  intense 
heat  is  requisite. 

Coal  tar  is  also  produced  in  the  evolution  of  gas,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  considered  useless.  It  is  now  used  to 
protect  iron  work  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  by  distilla- 
tion it  yields  paraffine,  which  is  made  into  candles,  and  also 
the  coal  oil  which  we  use  in  lamps. 


SALINE  MINERALS. 
LESSON  LXXXin. 

SALT. 

Salt  is  a  mineral  substance,  beautifully  white,  sparkling, 
and  crystalline  ;  it  is  soluble,  fusible,  granulous,  and  of  a 
peculiar  flavor  called  saline.  It  is  a  most  beneficent  pro- 
vision of  nature  that  salt — the  only  mineral  substance  re- 
quired as  an  article  of  food  by  man  and  the  higher  orders 
of  the  animal  kingdom — is  almost  everywhere  accessible. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  this  useful  mineral,  which 


SALT.  375 

are  distinguished  by  the  different  situations  in  which  they 
are  found.  The  principal  are  sea  salt,  called  also  bay  salt^ 
which  is  produced  from  the  ocean ;  the  best  comes  from 
Portugal ;  salt  drawn  from  brine  springs ;  and  rock  salt, 
which  is  due:  out  of  the  earth.  Amono^st  the  most  exten- 
give  salt  mines  hitherto  discovered  are  those  at  Wieliczka,  a 
picturesque  little  town  situated  on  the  sides  of  a  gentle 
valley,  about  eight  miles  from  Cracow,  formerly  the  chief 
city  of  Poland.  The  traveller  who  visits  these  subterra- 
neous deposits  of  salt,  being  furnished  with  a  guide  and 
two  lamp  bearers,  is  let  down  a  shaft  of  about  150  feet  by 
a  rope.  At  the  depth  of  90"  feet  he  arrives  at  the  rock  of 
pure  salt,  which  is  of  a  dingy  soot  color,  here  and  there 
glistening  by  the  light  of  the  lamps.  The  swing  is  now 
abandoned,  and  the  ear  is  assailed  by  the  busy  sound  of 
spades,  mattocks,  and  wheelbarrows,  in  every  direction. 
This  is  the  first  floor  of  a  large  cavern,  containing  in  dif- 
ferent parts  a  stable  for  twenty  horses,  quantities  of  salt, 
some  in  bare  masses,  some  in  casks  ready  to  be  hoisted  to 
the  surface,  stores  of  implements  for  the  miners,  <fec*  This 
excavation  is  about  100  feet  long  and  80  broad  (besides 
the  stable),  and  about  20  feet  high.  From  hence  a  long 
gallery,  12  feet  high  by  8  broad,  leads  toward  the  interior 
of  the  mine,  where  lateral  avenues  branch  off  in  various 
directions,  each  named  after  some  Austrian  prince  or  prin- 
cess, and  resembling  more  in  appearance  the  avenues  of  a 
subterraneous  palace  than  the  passages  of  a  mine.  A 
flight  of  steps  conducts  down  another  hundred  feet  to  the 
second  floor ;  in  this  descent  the  bed  of  salt  is  inter- 
rupted by  a  narrow  stratum  of  pure  clay ;  sometimes  by  a 


376  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   LXXXIII. 

mixture  of  salt  and  the  same  earth ;  these  strata  are,  in 
places,  very  curiously  curved,  as  though  a  rolling  wave  had 
been  arrested  in  its  course,  and  preserved  in  its  original 
form.  The  miners  are  here  found  at  work,  some  hewing 
pillars  of  salt  from  the  rock,  some  cutting  them  into  mass- 
es for  home  consumption,  and  some  stowing  the  masses  in 
barrels  for  exportation.  The  cavern  on  this  floor  is  rather 
smaller  than  the  first ;  it  consists  of  one  spacious  hall,  and 
has  no  pillar  to  support  the  roof. 

Proceeding  on  his  subterranean  journey,  the  traveller 
arrives  at  a  wooden  platform,  from  whence  he  looks  down 
upon  an  abyss,  which  the  simple  lights  of  the  conductors 
fail  to  illuminate,  though  the  spars  of  the  mineral  reflect- 
ing the  rays  of  light  produce  a  novel  and  beautiful  efiect. 
When  princes  or  other  great  personages  visit  the  mines,  a 
chandelier  of  crystal  salt,  hanging  in  the  centre,  is  fur- 
nished with  150  lights,  which  display  a  stupendous  cavern, 
having  the  appearance  of  a  castle  in  ruins ;  at  the  bottom 
are  some  rows  of  seats,  rising  like  the  benches  of  a  theatre ; 
opposite  to  these  is  an  orchestra :  here,  on  such  occasions, 
a  small  band  plays  a  few  airs  of  slow  and  simple  music, 
which  has  a  most  singular  effect,  and  harmonizes  well  with 
the  surrounding  scene.  Long  galleries  and  flights  of  steps, 
all  spacious  enough  to  allow  free  course  to  the  fresh  air, 
lead  deeper  and  deeper  in  the  saline  rock ;  the  scene  now 
and  then  is  varied  by  a  cavern  full  of  workmen,  and  some 
along  the  galleries,  wheeling  their  little  carts  full  of  salt, 
each  with  its  lamp  in  front.  On  the  fourth  floor  there  is 
a  little  subterraneous  lake,  about  80  feet  long  and  40  broad, 
over  which  illustrious  personages  are  ferried  on  rafts  of 


SALT.  .3  77 

^r  logs,  lighted  by  numerous  flambeaux.  Here  terminates 
the  bed  of  green  salt^  the  most  common  sort,  and  easiest 
to  be  cut.  The  next  to  it  is  called  spica  salt,  which  is 
harder  and  more  close  grained,  and  next  succeeds  a  white 
and  finer-grained  variety.  This  part  of  the  mine  is  TOO 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  300  feet  beneath  this 
lies  the  finest  crystal  salt,  which  is  reached  by  long  flights 
of  steps  and  inclined  planes.  The  cavern  in  which  it  is 
found  is  sufliciently  spacious  for  a  regiment  of  soldiers  to 
perform  their  manoeuvres  in  it.  This  is  the  deepest  part 
of  the  mine :  the  air  is  quite  pure,  rather  cooler  than  that 
of  the  open  day,  but  much  warmer  than  it  is  about  half- 
way down.  The  return  is  through  a  difi*erent  series  of 
corridors  and  caverns.  On  the  third  floor  is  a  simple  tomb 
of  salt,  with  the  name  of  the  late  Emperor  of  Austria 
inscribed  with  letters  of  wood  neatly  gilt.  On  the  second 
floor  is  a  large  saloon  with  all  the  implements  of  mining, 
and  the  mode  of  letting  them  down  with  men  and  horses 
exhibited  in  transparency.  On  the  first  is  a  chapel  present- 
ing an  altar,  statue  of  the  Virgin,  crucifix,  and  figures  of 
Casimir  I  and  his  wife,  all  cut  out  of  the  solid  salt ;  before 
the  chapel  is  a  small  pulpit  in  the  Gothic  style.  To  visit 
the  whole  of  this  extraordinary  and  extensive  mine,  with 
all  its  galleries  and  caverns,  no  less  a  distance  than  300 
miles  must  be  traversed. 

The  salt  used  in  the  United  States  is  chiefly  obtained 
from  salt  brine  springs.  The  principal  springs  are  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  in  Western  Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania,  in 
Michigan,  and  the  States  bordering  on  the  Ohio  river.  The 
most  productive  springs  are  about  Onondaga  Lake,  at  Syra- 


378  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  LXXXHI. 

cuse.  To  obtain  this,  wells  are  bored  or  sunk  in  the  low 
lands  about  the  lake,  to  various  depths,  from  200  to  300 
feet,  and  from  these  salt  water  is  pumped  up  into  reser- 
voirs, from  which  the  evaporating  works  are  supplied.  It 
is  allowed  to  remain  in  these  reservoirs  until  some  of  its 
impurities,  particularly  the  oxide  of  iron,  are  deposited. 
To  hasten  this  they  put  in  a  little  alum,  or  clay,  or  heat 
the  brine.  About  one  eighth  of  the  whole  salt  product  is 
separated  by  solar  evaporation,  and  seven  eighths  by  boil- 
ing. The  great  reservoirs  for  the  former  process  cover  an 
area  of  700  acres.  They  are  divided  into  tanks  of  about 
16  by  18  feet  each,  and  6  inches  deep.  These  are|)rovided 
with  covers,  or  movable  sheds,  which  are  removed  in 
pleasant  weather.  About  fifty  bushels  of  coarse  salt,  such 
as  is  used  for  packing  and  curing  provisions,  may  be  made 
annually  in  one  of  these  tanks.  Seventy  pounds  is  called 
a  bushel  of  solar  salt.  Of  the  boiled  salt,  fifty-six  pounds 
or  five  of  these  bushels  make  a  barrel. 

The  boiling  is  conducted  in  large  iron  kettles,  contain- 
ing about  one  hundred  gallons,  and  set  in  "blocks"  of 
brickwork,  close  together,  either  in  a  single  line,  or  in  two 
parallel  rows,  the  whole  length-'of  the  block.  A  double 
block  may  contain  eighty  kettles,  and  may  make  from 
20,000  to  25,000  bushels  a  year.  To  make  forty-five 
bushels  of  salt  requires  a  cord  of  hard  wood  or  a  ton  of 
coal.  There  are  here  312  blocks,  containing  16,434  kettles, 
and  capable  of  making  12,480,000  bushels  of  salt  yearly. 
Just  before  the  salt  begins  to  crystallize,  the  sulphate  of 
lime  separates,  and  is  caught  in  a  pan  at  the  bottom  of  the 
kettle.     It  is  furthe  *  purified  and  made  perfectly  white, 


SODA.  879 

when  it  is  scooped  into  a  basket,  drained  back  into  the 
kettle,  and  put  into  bins,  where  it  is  allowed  to  drain  for 
two  weeks.  It  is  then  barrelled  for  sale.  The  cost  of  man- 
ufacture is  about  one  dollar  per  barrel. 

The  conservative  properties  of  salt  render  it  invaluable 
for  household  purposes,  and  for  preserving  meat  during 
voyages ;  and  its  stimulating  properties  give  a  relish  to 
food  and  help  digestion.  When  fused,  it  is  used  in  glaz- 
ing pottery  ;  it  improves  the  whiteness  and  clearness  of 
glass,  and  gives  hardness  to  soap ;  it  is  used  by  the  dyer  in 
fixing  colors  ;  also,  sometimes  as  a  manure. 

It  was  employed  in  all  the  Jewish  ceremonies,  being 
emblematical  of  purity  and  incorruptibility.  Our  blessed 
Lord  calls  his  disciples  the  salt  of  the  earth  ;  thereby  signi- 
fying to  them  that  having,  by  divine  grace,  their  own 
hearts  purified,  they  are  to  exercise  by  precept  and  exam- 
ple a  purifying  influence  on  the  hearts  of  others. 

LESSON  LXXXIV. 

SODA. 

Manufacture. — ^Until  w^ithin  the  last  few  years,  soda 
was  obtained  from  a  substance  termed  kelp,  formed  of  the 
ashes  of  burned  seaweeds.  In  Scotland  alone,  twenty-five 
thousand  tons  of  kelp  were  annually  produced.  At  the 
present  time  soda  is  prepared  by  fusing  the  native  peroxide 
of  tin  with  caustic  soda  in  an  iron  crucible. 

Properties. — Soda,  in  its  ordinary  state,  is  in  the  form 
of  large  crystals,  more  or  less  perfect.  These  are  transpa- 
rent and  colorless,  containing  more  than  half  their  weight 


380  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON   LXXXIV. 

of  water.  Exposed  to  a  dry  air,  the  water  flies  ofl^  leav- 
ing the  soda  as  an  opaque,  white  powder.  If  the  crystals 
are  heated,  the  soda  dissolves  in  the  water  they  contain, 
and  the  whole  becomes  liquid ;  on  increasing  the  heat,  the 
water  evaporates,  and  at  last  the  dry  soda  remains  only 
as  a  white  powder,  without  any  trace  of  a  crystaUine  form. 

Soda  is  very  soluble  in  water,  its  taste  is  alkaline  and 
unpleasant.  It  has  considerable  cleansing  properties,  as  it 
renders  grease  and  dirt  soluble  in  hot  water,  and  so  en- 
ables them  to  be  removed  by  washing.  This  power  may 
be  much  increased  by  adding  quicklime  to  soda,  when  the 
latter  is  rendered  caustic.  This  mixtuTe  has  been  some- 
times employed  for  washing  clothes,  but  it  is  far  too  corro- 
sive to  be  used  with  safety,  destroying  the  texture  of  the 
linen,  &c. 

Uses. — The  employment  of  soda  in  domestic  economy 
depends  on  its  cleansing  properties.  It  is  used  to  assist 
the  action  of  soap  in  washing  clothes,  paint,  wood,  &c.  In 
the  chemical  arts,  such  as  making  glass,  soap,  &c.,  it  is  of 
the  very  highest  importance  ;  it  also  forms,  in  combination 
with  other  substances,  many  valuable  medicines. 


PORCELAIN.  381 


MANUFACTURED  ARTICLES. 

LESSON    LXXXV. 

PORCELAIN. 

Clay  and  flint  are  the  chief  ingredients  of  porcelain. 
The  first  gives  the  plasticity  and  tenacity  requisite  for  the 
moulding  it  into  a  shape ;  the  latter  renders  it  hard,  and 
allows  of  a  slight  degree  of  vitrification.  The  following 
is  the  usual  process  carried  on  in  the  English  manufacto- 
ries of  china.  Flints  are  first  calcined,  then  mixed  in  cer- 
tain proportions  with  Cornish  granite,*  and  ground  to  a 
very  fine  powder;  water  is  poured  upon  this  mixture,  and 
it  is  twice  strained  through  silken  sieves.  It  is  then 
boiled  till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  the  watery 
particles  being  evaporated,  it  becomes  a  tough  paste.  A 
portion  of  this  substance  is  then  placed  upon  a  turning 
wheel,  and  moulded  by  the  hand  with  a  precision  and  ra- 
pidity which  practice  only  can  give.  Vessels  of  a  circular 
shape  are  formed  in  this  manner,  as  bowls,  plates,  cups,  and 
saucers ;  utensils  of  other  forms  are  made  in  moulds  of 
gypsum,  the  pores  of  which  absorbing  the  moisture  of  the 
clay,  the  vessels  are  contracted  in  size,  and  in  consequence 
may  be  easily  loosened  from  the  mould.  Each  vessel  thus 
formed  is  placed  in  a  separate  clay  case.  The  furnace  is 
filled  with  these,  and  then  bricked  closely  up,  and  they  are 
subjected  to  a  red  heat  for  sixty  hours.     The  temperature 

*  It  is  to  the  large  proportion  of  felspar  in  a  state  of  decomposition 
that  Cornish  granite  owes  the  preference  which  is  given  to  it. 


382  FIFTH    STEP. — LESSON    LXXXVI. 

is  then  gradually  lowered,  and  the  porcelain  is  withdrawn ; 
in  this  state  it  is  called  biscuit^  and  is  white,  dull,  and  po- 
rous. Tliis  process  greatly  diminishes  the  size  of  the  ves« 
sels;  and  it  fits  them  to  receive  the  blue  color,  called 
cobalt,*  which  has  the  appearance  of  a  dirty  gray  till 
glazed.  The  glazing  consists  of  lead  and  glass,  ground  to 
an  impalpable  powder,  mixed  in  water  with  some  othei 
ingredients,  which  are  kept  secret.  The  biscuit  is  merely 
dipped  into  the  glazing,  and  is  then  baked  again  for  forty 
hours.  It  is  now  ready  to  receive  other  colors,  and  the 
gilding  which  the  pattern  may  require.  It  is  baked  a  third 
time  for  ten  hours  or  more.  Lastly,  the  gilding  is  bur- 
nished with  bloodstone  or  agate,  and  the  china  is  ready  for 
the  wareroom.  The  colors  are  changed  by  baking,  appear- 
ing very  different  when  first  laid  on  than  when  they  have 
been  subjected  to  heat.  Comparatively  little  of  this  ware 
is  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 

LESSON   LXXXVI. 

NEEDLES. 

Manufacture. — The  material  from  which  needles  are 
made  is  soft  steel  wire  of  the  requisite  degree  of  fineness. 
This  is  obtained  by  the  manufacturer  in  large  coils,  each 
containing  sufficient  wire  to  form  several  thousand  needles. 
These  coils  are  first  cut  up  into  pieces  of  the  length  re- 
quired to  make  two  needles,  usually  about  three  inches, 
large  shears  being  used  capable  of  cutting  a  coil  of  one 
hundred  wires. 

*  Cobalt  is  an  oxide  of  the  metal  of  that  name. 


NEEDLES.  oS3 

Five  or  six  thousand  of  these  lengths  are  made  into  a 
bundle,  kept  together  by  a  ring  of  steel  at  each  end  ; 
they  are  then  heated  to  redness  in  a  furnace,  and  after- 
ward laid  upon  a  flat  iron  plate,  and  rubbed  backward 
and  forward  with  a  steel  bar,  until  each  wire  is  perfectly 
straight. 

The  next  stage  is  to  grind  a  point  at  each  end  of  the 
wire.  This  is  done  by  the  aid  of  a  grindstone  about  eigh- 
teen inches  in  diameter  and  four  inches  thick  ;  they  are 
made  to  revolve  so  rapidly  that  they  are  liable  to  fly  into 
pieces,  and  are  therefore  partially  enclosed  in  iron  plates  to 
avoid  injury  to  the  grinder,  should  such  an  accident  occur. 
The  grinder  takes  from  fifty  to  sixty  wires  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  right  hand  ;  and  as  he  presses 
them  against  the  stone,  he  causes  all  the  wires  to  roll 
round,  and  thus  each  is  ground  to  a  point.  So  expert  do 
the  grinders  become  by  practice,  that  they  point  a  handful 
of  these  wires,  usually  about  sixty,  in  half  a  minute,  or 
about  seven  thousand  in  an  hour.  During  the  grinding 
every  wire  gives  out  a  stream  of  sparks,  and  these  to- 
gether form  a  bright  glare  of  light. 

Pointing  these  wires  is  the  most  unhealthy  part  of  the 
manufacture  ;  the  fine  dust  is  carried  into  the  lungs  of  the 
workmen,  and  destroys  them  in  a  few  years,  very  few  living 
beyond  the  age  of  forty. 

Wet  grindstones  cannot  be  used,  as  the  points  of  the 
needles  would  be  rapidly  rusted. 

The  wires  thus  pointed  at  each  end  are  stamped  by  a 
heavy  hammer,  raised  by  a  lever  moved  by  the  workman's 
foot.     The   under   surface   of  this  hammer  is  so  formed. 


384  FIFTH    STEP. LESSON   LXXXVI. 

that  whoQ  it  falls  on  the  wire  midway  between  th^  two 
ends,  it  stamps  on  one  side  the  gutters  or  grooves  in  which 
the  eye  is  afterward  made ;  and  the  anvil  on  which  the 
wire  rests  when  the  hammer  strikes  it  forms  the  two 
grooves  on  tlie  opposite  side.  This  stamping  also  makes 
a  slight  depression  or  pit  on  each  side  at  the  spot  in- 
tended for  the  eye. 

The  wires  are  then  passed  to  a  boy,  who  takes  a  num- 
ber of  them  in  his  left  hand,  while  with  his  right  he 
works  a  press  moving  two  hard  steel  points  or  piercers. 
These  come  down  upon  the  wire  as  it  is  placed  beneath 
t'»em,  and  pierce  the  eyes  for  the  two  needles.  Each 
wire  now  resembles  two  rough,  unpolislied  needles,  uni- 
ted together  by  their  heads ;  and  as  it  would  require  much 
trouble  to  divide  them  separately  into  two  needles,  a  num- 
ber are  threaded  upon  two  very  thin  wires,  and  are  sepor 
rated  by  filing  and  bending. 

Any  needles  which  may  have  been  bent  in  the  several 
processes  are  straightened  by  rolling  under  a  steel  bar,  and 
are  hardened  by  heating  in  a  furnace  and  suddenly  cooled 
in  cold  water  or  oil.  After  hardening  they  are  tempered 
by  being  slightly  heated,  and,  if  any  are  bent  during  hard- 
ening, they  are  straightened  by  being  hammered  on  anvils 
with  small  hammers;  finally,  the  whole  are  polished  by 
laying  twenty  or  thirty  thousand  side  by  side  upon  a  piece 
of  thick  canvas,  smearing  them  with  oil  and  emery,  rolling 
up  the  canvas,  and  rubbing  them  under  a  press  for  several 
hours  or  even  days. 

Drilled-eyed  needles  undergo  another  operation — a 
fine  drill  is  made  to  revolve  rapidly  in  the  eye  of  each, 


NAILS.  385 

to  take  off  the  rough  edge  and  prevent  their  cutting  the 
thread  when  used  ;  finally,  the  points  are  finished  on  a 
revolving  hone  and  polished  on  a  wheel  covered  with 
leather,  and  enclosed  in  a  paper  for  sale. 

Simple  as  the  construction  of  a  needle  may  appear, 
the  steel  which  forms  it  has  to  pass  through  the  hands  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  workmen  from  the  time  it  leaves 
the  iron  mine  until  its  manufacture  is  completed. 

The  manufacture  of  needles  is  now  carried  on  to  a 
great  extent  in  many  villages  in  England,  but  principally 
at  Redditch,  about  fourteen  miles  from  Birmingham,  and 
from  this  obscure  place  a  large  portion  of  Europe,  the 
British  Colonies,  and  the  United  States  are  supplied. 

LESSOR  LXXXVII. 

NAILS. 

Manufacture  and  Varieties. — ^Three  distinct  kinds  of 
nails,  adapted  to  various  uses,  are  manufactured  in  this 
country.  It  is  stated  that  of  these  kinds  there  are  three 
hundred  different  varieties,  each  variety  being  formed,  on 
an  average,  of  ten  sizes. 

The  three  kinds  are,  wrought  nails,  cast  nails,  and  cut 
or  punched  nails. 

"Wrought  nails  are  made  of  sheet  iron,  which  is  cut  by 
machinery  into  rods  of  various  thicknesses,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  nails  required.  The  persons  who  convert 
these  rods  into  nails  are  called  nailers,  and  men,  women, 
and  even  children  follow  the  pursuit,  each  person  usually 
making  one  form  of  nail  only,  and  by  so  doing  acquiring 
17 


386  PEFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON  LXXXVII. 

a  remarkable  degree  of  skill  and  rapidity  in  its  pro 
duction. 

The  first  process  in  making  these  nails  is  to  heat  in  a 
forge  one  end  of  the  nail  rod  to  redness ;  it  is  then  ham- 
mered to  a  point,  and  the  required  length  cut  off  with  a 
chisel.  If  the  nails  are  large,  the  rod  is  immediately  re- 
turned to  the  forge,  but  if  of  moderate  size,  two  nails  are 
made  at  one  heating.  During  the  time  the  rod  is  being 
reheated,  the  nailer  forms  the  heads  of  those  cut  off,  by 
hammering  them,  while  still  red  hot,  into  the  hole  of  a 
steel  instrument  used  for  the  purpose,  called  a  bore,  this 
hole  being  the  shape  of  the  head. 

The  nailers  become  so  expert  by  long  practice,  that  one 
man  has  been  known  to  make  seventeen  thousand  nails  in 
a  week  without  assistance.  To  do  this  w^ould  require 
more  than  half  a  million  blows  of  the  hammer.  The 
usual  number  made  by  each  nailer  is  about  six  thousand 
weekly. 

The  different  sorts  of  nails  are  named  either  from  the 
use  to  which  they  are  applied,  or  from  their  shape  :  as 
shingle,  floor,  ship  carpenters',  horseshoe,  rose  heads,  dia- 
monds, sprigs,  brads,  and  spikes.  Sprigs  are  a  small,  sharp, 
taper  nail,  without  heads,  used  by  shoemakers.  Brads  are 
nails  with  the  head  on  one  side,  and  are  used  for  nailing 
floors  and  ceilings.  Very  large  nails  are  called  spikes. 
Rose  nails  have  a  broad,  spreading,  circular  head,  and  are 
made  of  various  degrees  of  strength,  and  for  various 
uses. 

Horseshoe  nails  are  thin  and  flat  on  the  sides.  They 
are  made  of  the  very  purest  and  toughest  iron,  and,  after 


KNIVES.  387 

having  been  used,  the  old  iron  is  in  considerable  demand 
for  making  gun  barrels. 

Tacks  are  a  useful  flat-headed  nail,  adapted  for  nailing 
down  carpets,  &c.  They  are  usually  small,  and  are  fre- 
quently tinned  over  by  boiling  them  in  a  solution  of  tin 
and  sal  ammoniac,  to  prevent  their  rusting. 

Cast  nails  are  adapted  only  for  coarse  purposes,  as  for 
garden  walls,  nailing  up  lathing  for  plasterers,  &c.  They 
are  rough,  and  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  much  more 
brittle  than  wrought  nails. 

Cut  nails  are  usually  punched  out  of  sheet  iron,  the 
most  common  form  being  the  sparables,  or  sparrow  bills 
— so  called  from  their  resemblance  to  the  beak  of  that  bird 
— and  brads,  which  have  a  slight  projecting  head  on  one 
side. 

The  employment  of  nails  in  connecting  various  sub- 
stances, and  the  uses  of  the  several  parts,  as  the  point,  the 
shank,  and  the  head,  are  too  obvious  to  require  description. 

LESSON  LXXXYIII. 

KNIVES. 

Manufacture  — Knives,  or  cutting  instruments  of  va- 
rious kinds,  have  been  used  by  men,  from  the  earliest  ages, 
for  the  purposes  of  war,  and  for  slaughtering  animals,  cut- 
ting food  and  other  substances.  In  ancient  times,  as  at  the 
present  day  among  some  barbarous  nations,  shells,  sharp- 
edged  flints,  and  other  hard  stones  were  employed;  at  a 
later  period  cutting  as  well  as  warlike  instruments  were 
formed  of  brass  or  bronze,  but  at  the  present  time,  in  all 


388  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON   LXXXVIH. 

civilized  nations,  they  are  formed  exclusively  of  steel  oi 
iron. 

Clasp  knives — so  called  from  the  blade  shutting  into 
the  handle — consist  of  four  distinct  parts,  viz.,  the  blade, 
the  spring,  the  iron  sides,  and  the  scales,  or  ornamental 
outsides. 

Penknife  blades,  which  ought  to  be  made  from  the  best 
cast  steel,  are  forged  with  a  small  hammer,  from  the  end 
of  a  steel  rod  heated  to  redness,  and  are  cut  off  with  suffi- 
cient metal  attached  to  form  the  joint ;  the  blade  is  then 
held  in  a  pair  of  tongs,  and  heated  a  second  time,  when  the 
part  forming  the  joint  is  finished ;  the  notch  called  the  nail 
hole,  used  in  opening  the  blade,  is  also  made  by  striking 
with  a  chisel  of  the  required  shape  ;  the  maker's  name  is 
at  the  same  time  impressed  by  punching.  The  blades  are 
then  hardened  by  heating  them  to  redness  and  dipping  the 
cutting  part  in  water,  and  they  are  afterward  tempered,  to 
prevent  their  being  too  brittle.  The  spring  and  iron  sides 
of  the  knife  are  forged  by  hand.  The  scales,  as  they  are 
termed,  whether  formed  of  ivory,  bone,  wood,  or  mother- 
of  pearl,  are  fitted  to  the  sides,  and  drilled  with  holes  for 
the  rivets;  these  are  put  in' and  tightened  by  hammering, 
after  the  various  parts  are  exactly  fitted  to  each  other  by 
filing. 

The  sides  and  back  of  the  handle  are  afterward 
scraped,  and  polished  on  a  revolving  wheel  covered  with 
leather;  lastly,  the  blade  is  ground  and  polished  ready 
for  use. 


6CISS0BS.  389 

LESSON  LXXXIX. 

SCISSORS. 

Manufacture, — Scissors  are  forged  from  bar  steel,  heat- 
ed to  redness,  each  blade  being  cut  off  with  sufficient  metal 
to  form  the  shank  and  bow ;  for  the  latter  a  small  hole  is 
punched ;  this  hole  is  afterward  stretched  to  the  required 
size  by  hammering  it  on  a  conical  anvil ;  the  shank  and 
bow  are  then  filed  into  a  more  perfect  shape,  and  the  hole 
bored  for  the  rivet ;  the  blade  is  next  ground,  and  the 
handles  filed  smooth  and  burnished  with  oil  and  emery; 
after  this,  the  blades  are  screwed  or  riveted  together,  and 
fitted,  so  as  to  work  pleasantly  over  one  another.  The 
screw  or  rivet  is  then  removed,  and  the  two  blades,  bound 
closely  to«fether  with  fine  iron  wire  to  prevent  their  warp- 
ing, are  heated  to  redness,  hardened  by  sudden  cooling, 
and  tempered.  After  this  the  wire  is  removed,  the  blades 
are  again  ground  and  adjusted,  so  as  to  bring  the  edges  to 
a  perfect  state ;  they  are  then  polished  by  emery  and  oil, 
ground  for  the  third  time,  put  together,  and  the  edges 
whetted,  when  they  are  ready  for  use,  although  some  of 
the  more  costly  kinds  undergo  the  additional  process  of 
burnishing,  by  rubbing  with  polished  steel  tools,  which  is 
done  by  women. 

Uses. — The  use  of  scissors  does  not  require  any  de- 
tailed description ;  it  may  be  noticed,  however,  that  the 
edges  of  the  blades  are  not  sharply  ground  like  those  of 
knives,  and  that  in  cutting  they  crush  or  bruise  more  than 
that  instrument.      This  does  not  interfere  with  their  use 


390  FIFTH   STEP. — LESSON   XC. 

in  cutting  thin  articles,  as  paper  or  cloth,  but  it  prevents 
their  being  usefully  employed  in  dividing  thicker  sub- 
stances. 

LESSON    XC. 

STEEL  PENS. 

Manufacture. — Steel  pens,  which  are  chiefly  manufac- 
tured at  Birmingham,  England,  are  made  from  the  best 
fiteel,  which  is  first  rolled  into  narrow  strips  of  the  required 
width  and  thickness  ;  these  are  then  cleaned  by  the  action 
of  some  dilute  acid,  and  cut  by  means  of  a  punch  worked 
by  a  screw  press,  into  flat  blank  pieces  of  the  requisite 
size  ;  the  hole  in  the  centre  is  then  made,  and  the  maker's 
name  stamped  on  each  pen  ;  after  which,  the  blank  is 
curved  into  a  nib,  or  a  cylinder  if  a  barrel  pen  is  required. 
Up  to  this  stage  the  steel  has  been  worked  in  a  soft  state ; 
the  pens  are  now  hardened  by  being  heated  and  cooled 
suddenly  by  immersion  in  oil ;  afterward  they  are  tempered 
to  the  required  degree  of  elasticity,  polislied  by  being 
placed  with  tine  sand  or  some  other  polishing  material  in 
a  revolving  cask,  and  the  nib-ground  to  a  fine  point  on  a 
grindstone,  or  emery  wheel ;  after  this,  the  slit  is  cut  by  a 
chisel  worked  by  a  screw  press,  and  the  pens  made  ready 
for  sale  by  being  colored  and  varnished.  The  manufacture 
is  chiefly  carried  on  by  women,  men  being  employed  only 
to  repair  the  tools.  It  is  estimated  that  1,000,000,000  pens 
are  manufactured  at  Birmingham  annually.  The  principal 
demand  for  steel  pens  in  the  United  States,  and  many 
countries  of  Europe  is  supplied  from  this  source. 


ZINC.  391 


LESSON  XCI. 

ZINC. 

Occurrence. — Zinc  is  not  found  in  a  native  state.  The 
ores  from  which  it  is  extracted  are  of  two  kinds.  In  one, 
which  is  termed  blende^  or,  by  the  miners,  black  jack,  it  is 
combined  with  sulpluir.  This  ore  occurs  in  tolerable  abun- 
dance distributed  amongst  other  ores,  particularly  those  of 
lead,  in  Cornwall,  Derbyshire,  and  in  the  north  of  England. 
The  other,  which  is  the  mineral  known  as  calamine,  is  by 
far  the  more  valuable  ore ;  it  is  found  in  the  Mendip  Hills, 
and  also  in  Flintshire,  Derbyshire,  <fec.,  England. 

Preparation. — Zinc  is  obtained  from  its  ores  by  first 
heating  them  to  redness  in  an  open  furnace.  This  opera- 
tion drives  off  the  sulphur  from  the  blende,  and  some 
gases  from  the  calamine.  The  roasted  ore  is  then  mixed 
with  coke  or  charcoal,  and  put  into  large  earthen  pots  re- 
sembling oil  jars  in  form ;  these  are  placed  in  a  circular 
furnace,  and  from  the  bottom  of  each  pot  a  large  iron 
tube  passes  through  the  floor  of  the  furnace  into  a  vessel 
of  cold  water.  When  the  jars  are  heated  to  redness,  the 
metal  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  and,  being  volatile, 
flies  off  in  vapor,  which,  passing  by  the  iron  tube  into  the 
water,  is  condensed  into  a  solid  form.  The  metal  so  ob- 
tained is  remelted,  when  the  impurities  are  skimmed  from 
the  surface,  and  it  is  then  cast  into  bars  for  use. 

Properties. — Zinc  is  a  bluish-white  metal,  possessing  a 
high  lustre  when  polished,  and  tarnishing  slowly  on  the 
surface  when  exposed  to  the  air.     The  thin  coat  of  rust 


392  FIFTH    STEP. ^LESSON    XCI. 

SO  formed  appears  to  protect  the  metal  beneath  from  any 
further  change.  Zinc  is  about  seven  times  heavier  than 
water. 

As  obtained  by  casting,  it  is  brittle,  and  on-  being 
broken  shov/ s  a  crystalline  fracture,  but  heated  to  a  degree 
somewhat  above  that  of  boiling  water,  it  becomes  mallea- 
ble, and  may  be  rolled  into  sheets,  which  retain  their  mal- 
leability when  cold  ;  the  sheet  zinc  so  obtained  is  flexible, 
and  possesses  some  degree  of  elasticity.  Heated  to  a  high 
degree,  but  still  short  of  the  point  at  which  it  melts,  zinc 
becomes  brittle,  and  may  be  powdered. 

It  melts  below  a  red  heat,  requiring  a  higher  temper- 
ature than  tin  or  lead }  at  a  bright  red  heat,  in  a  covered 
vessel,  it  boils  rapidly,  passing  away  in  vapor ;  but  if  the 
air  is  admitted,  by  uncovering  the  vessel,  it  takes  fire  and 
burns  with  a  splendid  greenish  flame. 

Zinc  possesses  a  very  considerable  degree  of  hardness, 
considerably  greater  than  that  of  any  of  the  common 
metals  except  copper  and  iron. 

Uses. — Zinc  being  only  superficially  acted  on  by  air 
and  water,  and  being  niuch  lighter  than  lead,  has  to  a 
great  extent,  superseded  that  -metal  for  such  purposes  as 
gutters,  rain-water  pipes,  &c.  Its  lightness  and  cheapness 
has  also  led  to  its  employment  as  a  covering  for  roofs, 
and  it  is  much  employed  in  making  baths,  cans,  and  other 
utensils  for  holding  water.  It  is  not  usually  employed  in 
lining  cisterns,  as  it  is  apt  to  impart  an  unpleasant  flavor  to 
the  water. 

Its  hardness  enables  it  to  be  used  for  making  saws  for 
dividing  blocks  of  salt;  and  as  it  does  not  rust,  it  is  pre- 


BRASS.  .393 

ferable  to  iron  for  that  purpose.  It  is  also  used  instead  of 
lithographic  stone  in  producing  prints,  which  are  termed 
zincographs.  Its  lustre  has  led  to  its  employment  instead 
of  brass  for  name  plates  on  doors,  &c. 

The  slow  action  of  air  and  moisture  on  zinc  has  also  led 
to  its  employment  as  a  covering  to  sheet  iron,  for  protect- 
ino-  the  latter  from  the  action  of  the  weather.  The  iron  so 
protected  is  known  as  galvanized  iron.  It  is  made  by  a 
similar  process  to  that  used  in  making  tinned  plate,  the 
iron  goods  being  first  cleaned  by  an  acid,  and  dipped  in  a 
bath  of  the  melted  metal. 

Sheet  zinc,  perforated  with  holes,  admitting  the  passage 
of  light  and  air,  is  used  largely  in  the  place  of  wire  gauze 
for  window  blinds,  meat  safes,  and  other  purposes. 

Preparations  of  zinc  are  now  largely  used  in  house 
painting,  as  substitutes  for  white  lead  ;  and,  although  they 
do  not  make  as  opaque  a  paint  as  that  substance,  they 
possess  the  advantages  of  being  cheaper,  uninjurious  to 
the  workmen,  and  are  less  liable  to  become  discolored. 

A  very  large  quantity  of  zinc  is  annually  consumed  in 
the  galvanic  batteries  required  in  working  the  electric 
telegraph. 

The  only  alloy  into  the  composition  of  which  zinc  enters 
largely  is  brass.     (See  Brass) 

LESSON  XCII. 

BRASS. 

Composition. — Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc, 
various  proportions  of  the  metals  being  employed  in  order 


394  FIFTH     STEP. LESSON   XCIH. 

to  obtain  different  degrees  of  hardness  and  color  in  the 
resalting  compound.  The  best  proportions  for  common 
brass  are  about  two  parts  of  copper  to  one  part  of  zinc. 
Formerly  brass  was  made  by  heating  copper  with  calamine 
(the  ore  of  zinc)  and  charcoal,  but  it  is  now  formed  by 
melting  together  the  two  metals;  it  is  then  cast  into 
plates,  which  are  either  broken  up  for  recasting  into  any 
desired  form,  or  rolled  into  sheets. 

Properties. — Common  brass  is  very  malleable,  and  duc- 
tile when  cold.  It  is  melted  more  easily  than  copper,  and 
readily  cast  into  any  required  form.  It  admits  of  a  very 
high  polish,  and  does  not  tarnish  or  rust  on  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  although  sufficiently  soft  to  yield  without  diffi- 
culty to  the  files  and  other  tools  of  the  workmen,  is  durable 
in  wear. 

Uses. — From  its  malleability,  ready  fusibility,  and  duc- 
tility, brass  is  so  easily  worked  that  it  is  employed  to  an 
immense  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery,  wheels 
for  clocks  and  watches,  and  for  articles  of  domestic  use,  as 
candlesticks,  pins,  buttons,  door  handles,  &c. 

LESSON  xcm. 

PINS. 

Manufacture. — ^The  making  of  pins  is,  from  their  ex- 
tensive use,  a  very  important  article  of  manufacture.  Two 
manufactories  in  Connecticut,  located  at  Birmingham  and 
Waterbury,  produce  about  eight  tons  of  pins  a  w^eek. 
They  make  their  own  brass  and  wire,  for  which  they  re- 
quire a  ton  of  copper  daily ;  this  they  obtain  exclusively 


PINS.  395 

from  Lake  Superior.  In  England,  for  home  use  and  ex- 
portation, upward  of  fifteen  millions  are  made  daily.  The 
old  method  of  manufacture  furnishes  a  remarkable  instance 
of  the  division  of  labor,  fourteen  persons  being  engaged  on 
each  pin,  without  including  those  w^ho  formed  the  wire 
from  which  it  was  made. 

This  method  of  making  pins  may  be  briefly  described 
as  follows : — Brass  wire  of  the  required  size  was  cleaned 
by  soaking  it  in  water,  rendered  acid  by  oil  of  vitriol  or 
sulphuric  acid ;  it  was  then  straight  en  ed^nd  cut  into  short 
lengths,  each  being  sufficient  for  four  or  six  pins ;  these 
pieces  were  pointed  at  each  end  by  grinding  on  two  small 
broad  wheels,  the  first  used  being  made  of  steel,  and  cut 
like  a  file ;  the  second  a  fine  grit  stone ;  the  grinder  w^ould 
take  from  fifty  to  eighty  pin  wires  in  his  hands,  and, 
spreading  them  out  flatly,  apply  them  first  to  the  revolving 
file,  and  afterward  to  the  stone  to  polish  them,  rolling  the 
wires  during  the  whole  time  between  his  hands,  so  as  to 
bring  them  to  rounded  points  at  the  ends  ;  from  the  wires 
thus  pointed  one  pin's  length  w^as  cut  off  at  each  end; 
they  were  then  pointed  again,  and  two  more  pins'  lengths 
cut  off,  and  finally  they  were  pointed  and  divided  in  the 
centre ;  the  stems  of  the  pins  were  thus  complete,  and  the 
next  step  was  to  form  the  head  ;  this  was  effected  by  wind- 
ing, in  a  lathe,  some  soft  small  brass  wire  in  a  close  spiral, 
around  a  piece  of  steel  wire,  the  same  size  as  the  pins  ;  this 
steel  wire  having  been  withdrawn,  the  coils  were  cut  up 
into  short  pieces  of  two  or  two  and  a  half  turns  each,  when 
they  are  ready  to  fix  on  the  stems  ;  this  was  done  by  the 
worker,  usually  a  boy  or  girl,  who  would  take  up  sevei*al 


396  FIFTH   STEP. — ^LESSON   XCIII. 

of  the  headless  pins,  and  plunge  them  into  the  heads,  which 
are  contained  either  in  a  bowl  or  in  his  apron  ;  the  wires  in 
this  way  would  each  catch  a  head,  or  sometimes  more  than 
one ;  the  superjfluous  ones,  if  any,  were  pulled  off,  and  the 
pins  placed  one  at  a  time,  points  downward,  in  a  small  steel 
die,  and  a  heavy  iron  bar,  raised  by  a  treadle  moved  by  the 
foot,  was  allowed  to  fall  on  each,  striking  the  top  of  the 
pin,  and  thus  moulding  or  fastening  on  the  head  ;  the  pin 
was  then  removed  from  the  die  and  another  operated 
upon ;  quick  workers  could  head  fifteen  hundred  pins  an 
hour,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  thousand  a  day. 

The  pins  were  cleaned  by  boiling  them  in  an  acid  liquor, 
such  as  sour  beer  or  wine  lees,  and  were  tinned  by  boiling 
in  a  solution  of  tin ;  after  this,  they  were  polished  by  being 
shaken  in  bags  partly  filled  with  bran,  which  was  afterward 
separated  by  winnowing,  leaving  the  pins  dry,  clean,  and 
ready  for  papering.  The  paper  in  which  pins  were  stuck 
for  sale  was  folded  by  a  crimping  iron,  and  the  folds  were 
placed  between  the  jaws  of  an  iron  vice,  across  which 
grooves  are  fixed  as  a  guide  ;  the  paperer  passed  a  horn 
comb  into  a  heap  of  pins  in  her  lap,  catching  up  a  number 
by  the  heads  ;  these  were  thrust-  through  the  folds  of  the 
paper,  one  in  each  groove.  The  improvements  introduced 
into  the  manufacture  by  American  inventors  have  entirely 
changed  its  character  and  led  to  a  more  rapid  production 
of  pins,  and  at  a  much  less  cost  of  labor.  The  machinery 
for  sticking  pins  saves  much  time  and  labor.  The  only 
attention  the  machine  requires  is  to  supply  it  with  paper 
and  pins. 

Solid-headed  pins  are  made  of  a  single  piece  of  wire, 


PEWTEE.  397 

the  heads  being  pressed  by  the  aid  of  machinery.  The 
pins  so  made  are  more  elegant,  and  the  heads  cannot  come 
off;  but  they  bend  easily,  as  this  mode  of  manufactuie 
necessitates  the  use  of  a  softer  wire  than  for  the  common 
kinds. 

LESSON  XCIY. 

PEWTER. 

Composition. — Pewter  is  an  alloy,  the  composition  of 
which  varies  according  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  re- 
quired. Its  base  is  always  tin,  to  which  is  added,  for  the 
inferior  kinds,  about  one  quarter  of  its  weight  of  lead  ;  this 
latter  metal,  however,  is  not  used  in  making  the  best  pew- 
ter, which  consists  of  tin  with  very  small  proportions  of 
antimony  and  copper. 

Properties. — Pewter  is  soft,  flexible,  but  inelastic  ;  ca- 
pable of  being  bent  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  again 
straightened,  without  cracking.  It  is  of  a  whitish  color, 
with  a  very  considerable  degree  of  brilliancy,  and,  al- 
though it  becomes  dull,  it  does  not  readily  tarnish  when 
exposed  to  air  or  moisture.  It  is  very  fusible,  and  may  be 
readily  cast  in  any  desired  form. 

Uses. — Formerly  pewter  was  in  almost  universal  use 
for  plates  and  dishes,  but  it  has  gradually  been  displaced 
by  the  great  cheapness  of  pottery  ware.  It  is  still  em- 
ployed for  beer  and  other  measures  which  are  exposed  to 
violence,  as  it  is  not  liable  to  crack,  and  if  pressed  out  of 
shape,  can  be  restored  by  beating  on  a  mould.  Its  softness 
also  allows  the  engraving  of  names  and  addresses  without 
much  labor,  and,  therefore,  cheaply. 


398  FIFTH    STEP. — ^LESSON    XCIV. 

Britannia  metal  may  be  regarded  as  a  harder  and  supe- 
rior kind  of  pewter,  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  anti- 
mony. The  best  consists  of  ninety  parts  of  tin,  ten  of 
antimony,  and  one  and  a  half  of  copper.  Like  pewter,  it  is 
readily  cast  into  moulds  or  rolled  into  sheets ;  it  is  suffi- 
ciently soft  to  be  stamped  with  cast  iron,  or  even  hard 
brass  dies ;  it  is  also  capable  of  being  tumad  in  a  lathe, 
and  fluted  or  moulded  by  pressure  ;  hence  it  is  extensively 
employed  in  making  spoons,  teapots,  jiitchers,  and  other 
domestic  articles.  The  superior  kinds  are  often  plated 
with  silver,  by  the  electro  process. 


YOCABULARY 


AROMATIC,  derived  from  the  Greek  Apcw^o,  aroma :  spice  having  a  pun- 
gent spicy  smell. 

ADHESIVE,  derived  from  the  Latin  ad-hser-ere,  to  stick  to :  composed  of 
particles  which  not  only  unite  together,  but  attach  themselves  to  other 
substances,  causing  them  to  stick  together ; — thus  the  particles  of  gum 
have  a  strong  mutual  cohesion ;  it  also  easily  attaches  itself  to  paper 
and  other  substances,  causing  them  to  hold  together. 

AFFINITY,  derived  from  the  Latin  affin-e.s,  related :  the  tendency  which 
some  bodies  have  to  unite  with  others. 

ABSORBENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  absorh-ere,  to  suck  up  :  sucking  up 
liquids.  An  absorbent  substance  must  be  also  porous,  for  if  there  were 
no  pores,  the  liquid  could  not  enter  the  substance. 

AGGREGATION,  derived  from  the  Latin  aggreg-are,  to  collect  together  in 
one  flock.     A  collection  of  things  brought  together  in  one. 

ARGILLACEOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  argilla,  clay :  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  clay,  or  consisting  principally  of  clay. 

ALLOY,  an  inferior  metal  mixed  with  one  more  precious ;  or  the  com- 
pound of  two  metals. 

ASTRINGENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  ad-string-ere,  to  bind  to  :  binding, 
contracting 

AMORPHOUS,  derived  from  fhe  Greek  o  (a)  not,  and  /xopcprf  (morphe)  a 
form :  without  any  regular  form, 

ACIDULATED,  derived  from  the  Latin  acid-ulus,  slightly  acid :  made 
slightly  acid 

ACRID,  from  the  Latin  acri-s,  sharp :  hot,  or  sharp  to  the  taste. 

ANNEAL,  to  heat  glass  after  it  is  blown,  that  it  may  not  break. 


400  VOCABULARY. 

AMALGAM,  the  combination  of  mercury  with  any  other  metallic  sub- 
stance. 

AQUAFORTIS,  signifies  litei-ally  strong  water,  but  is  applied  to  a  weak 
nitric  acid. 

ALKALI,  a  substance  which,  uniting  with  acids,  neutralizes  their  acidity: 
it  derives  its  name  from  a  plant  called  kali,  from  the  ashes  of  which  al- 
kaline substances  are  procured. 

ATMOSPHERE,  derived  from  the  Greek  arfios  (atmos)  vapor,  and  acpaipa 
(sphaira)  a  globe  or  sphere :  the  air  that  surrounds  our  globe  is  com- 
posed of  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

BRITTLE,  easily  broken :  hard  substances  only  are  brittle. 

CONGEAL,  derived  from  the  Latin  con,  together,  and  gel-w,  cold :  to  turn 
from  a  liquid  into  a  solid  by  the  influence  of  cold. 

CIRCLE,  a  circle  bounded  by  a  curved  line,  which  is  equally  distant  at 
every  point  from  the  centre. 

CIRCULAR,  in  the  form  of  a  circle. 

CONE,  a  solid  bounded  by  a  flat  circular  surface  called  the  hase^  and  a 
curved  surface  tapering  to  a  point,  called  the  apex. 

CONICAL,  having  the  form  of  a  cone. 

CALCINED,  burnt  in  a  fire  and  reduced  to  a  calx,  or  friable  substance. 

CULINARY,  derived  from  the  Latin  culina,  a  kitchen :  belonging  to  the 
kitchen. 

CHALYBEATE,  derived  from  the  Greek  xaAvi//  (chaly-6s)  iron :  impreg- 
nated with  iron  or  steel. 

CORROSIVE,  derived  from  the  Latin  rod-^re,  to  gnaw :  having  the  power 
of  eating  away  anything. 

CONTAGION,  derived  from  the  Latin  con,  together,  and  iaw-gere,  to 
touch :  something  proceeding  from  body  to  body,  by  which  disease  la 
communicated. 

CONCAVE,  the  inner  curve  of  a  hollow  sphere. 

CONVEX,  the  outer  curve  of  a  sphere. 

CONSERVATIVE,  derived  from  the  Latin  con,  together,  and  serv-arc,  to 
keep :  having  the  power  of  preserving  or  preventing  decay. 

CAUSTIC,  derived  from  the  Greek  KavariKos  (causticos),  burning:  having 
the  power  to  destroy  the  texture  of  parts  by  burning  or  eating  them  away. 

COHERE,  derived  from  the  Latin  co,  together,  and  haer-lre,  to  stick:  to 
stick  together. 

CALORIC,  derived  from  the  Latin  cal-or,  heat :  heat. 

COLLISION,  derived  from  the  Latin  collis-ii«,  struck  together:  the  act  of 
striking  two  bodies  together. 

COMPACT,  fii-m,  solid,  close. 


VOCABULARY.  401 

CARBON",  derived  from  the  Latin  earbo,  charcoal :  the  pure  inflammable 

part  of  charcoal. 
CARBONIC  ACID,  carbon  united  with  a  certain  portion  of  oxygen. 
CALCAREOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  calx,  lime  ;  consisting  principally 

of  lime. 
COMPONENT  PART,  derived  from  the  Latin  con,  together,  and  pon-ere, 

to  place :  a  part  forming  with  others  a  compound  body. 
CYLINDER,  derived  from  the  Greek  KvXiudM  (kylindo),  I  roll:  a  solid 

bounded  by  one  curved  surface  and  two  flat  ends. 
CYLINDRICAL,  having  the  form  of  a  cyUnder. 
DUCTILE,  derived  from  the  Latin  duc-<l/is,  capable  of  being  drawn  out  in 

length. 
DECOMPOSITION,  the  separation  of  the  particles  of  a  compound  body. 
DILATABLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  dilat-are,  to  extend  :  capable  of  be- 
ing expanded. 
DENSE,  close,  thick  :  the  opposite  to  rare. 
DILUTED,  derived  from  the  Latin  di\\i-erc,  to  wash :  having  been  made 

thinner  or  weaker. 
ECONOMICAL,  derived  from  the  Greek  oiKoi/o/jna  (oikonomia),  household 

management :  relating  to  the  management  of  a  family. 
ELEMENT,  a  substance  not  compounded,  having  but  one  constituent  part. 
EMOLLIENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  moll-is,  soft :  having  the  power  to 

soften. 
EXPORTED,  derived  from  the  Latin  ex,  out,  and  port-are,  to  carry :  to 

carry  out  of  the  country. 
EXOTIC,  derived  from  the  Greek  i^cc  (exo),  without :  not  produced  in  our 

country :  particularly  applied  to  plants. 
EVAPORATE,  derived  from  the  Latin  e,  out  from,  and  vapor,  vapor :  to 

pass  off  in  a  vapor. 
EXCRESCENCE,  derived  from  the  Latin  ex,  out,  and  cresc-ere,  to  grow  : 

something  growing  out  of  another  body,  not  useful  to  it,  and  contrary 

to  the  common  order  of  production. 
EXHALE,  derived  from  the  Latin  ex,  out,  and  hal-are,  to  breathe:  to 

send  out  vapors  or  fumes. 
ELASTIC,  having  the  power,  when  bent  or  stretched,  of  returning  to  its 

original  position. 
EFFERVESCENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  eflfervesc-ere,  to  boil  up-,  bub- 
bling up  with  internal  commotion. 
EDIBLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  ed-ere^  to  eat:  fit  for  food,  eatable. 
FRAGRANT,  having  a  sweet  scent. 


t02  VOCABULART. 

FLUID,  derived  from  the  Latin  flu-^re,  to  flow :  having  parts  easily  sepa- 
rable, and  flowing  about. 

FUSIBLE,  melting  in  fire. 

FRIABLE,  easily  crumbling. 

FOLIATED,  derived  from  the  Latin  foli-wm,  a  leaf:  composed  of  leaves, 
or  laminae. 

FRACTURE,  derived  from  the  Latin  fract-M«,  broken:  the  appearance  of 
a  mineral  when  broken. 

FRAGILE,  derived  from  the  Latin  frang-cr«,  to  break:  easily  broken  or 
injured. 

FLEXIBLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  flex-ws,  bent :  easily  bent. 

FRICTIOX,  derived  from  the  Latin  fric-are,  to  rub:  the  act  of  rubbing 
two  bodies  together. 

FARINACEOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  farina,  flour :  mealy,  of  the  na- 
ture of  flour. 

FILTRATION,  derived  from  the  Latin  filtr-M?n,  a  colander:  the  process  of 
pa''sing  a  liquid  through  the  interstices  of  another  body. 

FERMENTATION,  derived  from  the  Lati^  ferment-?<w,  leaven:  internal 
commotion  in  the  particles  of  a  body:  plants  undergo  fermentation 
when  they  decompose. 

GLUTINOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  gluten,  glue  :  tenacious,  viscid. 

GLOBULE,  deiivgd  from  the  Latin  glob-ulus^  a  small  globe:  small  globe 
or  sphere. 

GRAMINIVOROUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  gramen,  grass,  and  vor-ar«,  to 
eat :  feeding  on  grass. 

GRANULOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  granul-wm,  a  little  grain :  separat- 
ing into  small  particles,  or  grains,  as  sand. 

GENERIC,  derived  from  the  Latin  gengr-a,  kinds :  relating  to  a  genus,  oi 
kind  of  things. 

GRADUATED,  derived  from  the  Latin- gradu-«,  a  step :  marked  by  a  reg- 
ular increase  of  degrees. 

HORIZON,  derived  from  the  Greek  dpiCwv  (horizon),  bounding:  the  line 
that  bounds  our  view. 

HORIZONTAL,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  horizon. 

HERMETICALLY  se;iled,  so  sealed  as  entirely  to  exclude  the  air. 

HYDROGEN,  derived  from  the  Greek  vSwp  (hydor)  water,  and  ytwafiu 
(gen-naeiii)  to  produce  ;  the  lightest  gas :  with  a  certain  portion  of  oxy- 
gen it  forms  water. 

IRIDESCENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  irid-csccr«,  to  become  like  a  rain* 
bow  :  shining  with  the  colors  of  the  rainbow. 


VOCABULARY.  403 

IMPALPABLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  in,  not,  and  palp-are,  to  feel ;  not 
to  be  perceived  by  touch. 

IMBRICATED,  derived  from  imbric-are,  to  cover  with  tiles :  arranged  in 
the  manner  of  the  tiles  of  the  house. 

IMPORTED,  derived  from  the  Latin  in,  into,  and  port-are,  to  carry  :  car- 
ried into  a  country. 

IMPRESSIBLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  in,  and  press- ws,  pressed  :  easily 
receiving  and  retaining  an  impression. 

INDIGENOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  indig-ewa,  native  :  the  natural  pro- 
duction of  the  country.  This  term  is  applied  to  vegetables,  as  native  is 
to  animals. 

INSIPID,  derived  from  in,  not,  and  sap-ere,  to  savor :  having  but  little 
flavor. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE,  derived  from  in,  not,  and  combust-ws,  burned :  noi 
to  be  consumed  by  fire. 

INTERSTICE,  derived  from  the  Latin  inter,  between,  and  stit-ion,  placed : 
small  space  between  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 

IMPREGNATED,  filled  with  any  quality  or  thing. 

INCISION,  derived  from  the  Latin  incis-ws,  cut  in  :  a  cut  or  wound  made 
by  a  sharp  instrument. 

IMPERVIOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  in,  not,  per,  through,  and  via,  a 
way :  presenting  no  passage.  A  substance  is  impervious  to  a  liquid 
when  it  presents  no  pore  or  passage  by  which  it  can  enter. 

IGNITED,  derived  from  the  Latin  igni-.s,  fire :  having  been  kindled  or  set 
on  fire. 

INFUSION,  derived  from  in,  into,  and  fusus,  poured :  a  liquid  in  which 
something  has  been  steeped  to  draw  out  its  properties. 

LIQUID  properly  signifies  that  which  nas  been  melted :  anything  which  we 
drink,  or  which  forms  into  drops.  Air  is  a  fluid  Water  is  both  fluid 
and  liquid ;  when  we  speak  of  it  as  a  stream  or  current,  it  is  properly 
called  a  fluid,  but  when  we  speak  of  it  as  passing  from  a  congealed  to  a 
dissolved  state,  it  should  properly  be  called  a  liquid. 

LAMINA,  a  thin  plate. 

LAMINATED,  formed  of  thin  plates  or  laminae. 

LATERAL,  derived  from  the  Latin  latera,  sides  :  at  the  side. 

LIGNEOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  lign-M?«,  wood :  made  of  wood,  or 
having  a  woody  structure. 

LUBRICOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  lubric-t(s,  slippery:  sUppery,  smooth. 

LAYER,  that  which  is  spread  over  a  substance. 

MAGNIFYING,  derived  from  the  Latin  magn-tcs,  great,  ana  d-ert,  to  be 
made  :  making  things  appear  larger  than  they  actually  are. 


404  VOCABULARY. 

MALLEABLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  malle-ws,  a  hammer:  capable, 
when  beaten,  of  great  extension  without  the  particles  being  sep- 
arated. 

MALEFACTOR,  derived  from  the  Latin  male,  badly,  and  factor,  doer :  a 
criminal,  an  evil  doer. 

MATURITY,  derived  from  the  Latin  matur-ws,  ripe :  ripe,  or  having  ar- 
rived at  its  most  perfect  state. 

MARINE,  derived  from  the  Latin  mare,  the  sea:  belonging  to  the  sea. 

MEAGRE,  dry  and  harsh  to  the  touch :  a  term  applied  to  earthy  minerals, 
as  chalk. 

METALLIC,  composed  of  a  metal,  or  of  the  nature  of  a  metal. 

NATIVE,  derived  from  the  Latin  nat-ws,  born :  growing  naturally  in  a 
country.  When  applied  to  a  metal,  it  means  that  it  is  not  mixed  with 
any  other  substance. 

NUTRITIOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  nutr-iVe,  to  nourish:  containing 
much  nourishment. 

NEUTRALISE,  derived  from  the  Latin,  neut-er,  neither:  to  destroy  the 
distinguishing  qualities  of  anything.  The  compound  of  an  alkali  and 
an  acid  has  not  the  qualities  of  either,  both  being  neutralised  by  their 
action  upon  each  other. 

NITROGEN,  a  gas :  united  in  certain  proportions  with  oxygen,  it  forms 
atmospheric  air. 

NITRIC  ACID,  nitrogen,  united  with  a  certain  proportion  of  oxygen. 

NITRATE,  nitric  acid  united  with  another  substance. 

OXYGEN,  derived  from  the  Greek  o|us  (oxys),  acid,  and  yfwaeii/  (gen-. 
7iaem),  to  produce :  a  gas;  united  in  certain  proportion  with  oxygen, 
it  forms  the  air ;  with  hydrogen,  water. 

OXIDE,  that  which  is  united  with  oxygen. 

ODOROUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  odor,  a  smell:  having  a  smell 

OVAL,  derived  from  the  Latin  ov-mw,  'SOi  egg :  having  the  form  of 
an  egg. 

OLEAGINOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  oXe-nm,  oil :  oily. 

ORE ;  a  metal  is  termed  an  ore  when  united  with  another  mineral  8u|)- 
stancc. 

OPAQUE,  derived  from  the  Latin  opuc-w«,  dark :  dark,  not  admitting  any 
light  to  pass  through. 

PONDEROUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  pond-us,  a  weight:  heavy. 

PORTABLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  port-are,  to  cany :  easy  to  carry. 

POLARITY,  the  property  of  turning  towards  the  poles. 

PLIABLE,  derived  from  the  French  pli-^r,  to  fold :  easily  folded  into 
plaits.     A  young  twig  ia  flexible,  linen  is  pliuble. 


VOCABULARY.  405 

PULVERABLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  pulv-is,  dust :  capable  of  being 

reduced  to  a  powder  or  dust. 
PERFORATED,   derived  from  the  Latin   perfor-arc,   to   bore    through  : 

pierced  with  holes. 
PLASTIC,  derived  from  the  Greek  irXacraeiv  (plas3-ei?i),  to  form  :  capable 

of  being  moulded  into  any  form. 
PETRIFACTION,  derived  from  'the  Latin  petra,  a  stone,  and  fac-ere,  to 

make :  turned  into  stone. 
PARALLEL,  derived   from   the  Greek  napa  (para),  by  the  side  of,  and 

aWrjKwu  (allelon),  each  other ;  running  in  the  same  direction  with  an- 
other thing,  and  always  keeping  at  the  same  distance  from  it. 
PERFECT,  when  applied  to  a  metal,  signifies  that  it  does  not  lose  any  of 

its  weight  by  fusion. 
POROUS,  derived  from  the  Greek  Tropoy  (poros),  a  passage :  full  of  small 

pores  or  holes.     All  bodies  are  more  or  less  porous,  but  the  quality  is 

only  attributed  to  those  in  which  it  is  obvious. 
PUNGENT,  derived   from   the  Latin  pung-er^,  to  prick:    warm   to   the 

taste. 
PROCESS,  derived  from  the  Latin  process-ws,  a  going  forward:  a  regular 

course  by  which  anything  is  done. 
PERPENDICULAR,  derived   from   the  Latin   perpendicul-?<??i,  a  plumb 

line :  in  the  same  direction  as  a  plumb  line,  hanging  freely. 
PENDULOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  ipend-ere,  to  hang :    hanging  sus- 
pended. 
QUADRANGULAR,  derived  from  the  Latin  quatuor,  four,  and  angul-ws, 

an  angle:  a  form  having  four  angles. 
REFLECTIVE,  reflecting,  or  giving  back  an  image :  this  quality  depends 

upon  brightness. 
RESERVOIR,  derived  from  the  Latin  reserv-are,  to  keep :  a  place  where 

anything  is  kept  in  store. 
RARITY,  thinness  as  applied  to  fluids :  the  opposite  to  dense. 
ROASTING,  with  respect  to  minerals,  the  process  by  which  their  volatile 

parts  are  evaporated. 
RHOMB,  derived  from  the  Greek  pofx^os  (rhombos),  a  rhomb .-  a  surface 

bounded  by  four  equal  straight  lines;    its  opposite   angles  are  equal, 

but  not  right  angles. 
RHOMBOHEDRON,  derived  from  the  Greek  poMjSos  (rhombos),  a  rhomb, 

and  kZpa  (hedra),  a  base :  a  solid  bounded  by  six  rhombs,  any  one  of 

which  may  be  its  base. 
STRATUM,  derived  from  the  Latin  strat-ttw,  laid :  a  bed  or  layer. 
SUPPLE,  easily  bent  in  any  direction. 


406^  VOCABULARY. 

SMELTING,  the  process  by  which  the  pure  metal  is  separated  from  th^ 

earthy  particles  with  which  it  is  combined  iu  the  ore. 
SILICIOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  sil-ex,  tiint:  consisting  principally  of 

silex  or  flint. 
SECRETION,  derived  from  the  Latin  secret-MS,  separated :  that  which  is 

separated  from  any  other  substance,     Teara  are  an  animal  secretion : 

the  honey  in  flowers  is  a  vegetable  secretion. 
SOLUBLE,  derived  from  the  Latin  so\v-ere,  to  loosen :  melting  in  a  liquid. 
SOLVENT,  having  the  power  of  dissolving  things. 
SOLUTION,  that  which  contains  anything  dissolved. 
SPHERE,  derived  from  the  Greek  a^aipa  (sphaira),  a  globe  or  sphere :  4 

solid  bounded  by  one  curved  surface,  which  is  equally  distant  in  every 

part  from  the  centre. 
SPHERICAL,  having  the  form  of  a  sphere. 
SOLID,  filling  up  space  :  in  this  sense  it  is  opposed  to  hollow. 
SOLID,  having  particles  adhering  closely  together :  in  this  sense  it  is  op- 
posed to  fluid. 
SONOROUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  son-us,  a  sound  :  capable  of  producing 

sound. 
SUMMIT,  derived  from  the  Latin  summ-?is,  highest:  the  top  or  highest 

part. 
SAPID,  derived  from  the  Latin  sap-<?re,  to  savor :  having  a  flavor. 
SPARKLING,  bright  in  parts  and  not  over  the  whole  surface. 
SATURATE,  derived  from  the  Latin  satur,  full:  to  fill  anything  till  it  can 

receive  no  more. 
SEMI-TRANSPARENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  serai,  half,  trans,  through, 

and  p&Y-enH,  appearing :  presenting  an  imperfect  passage  to  the  rays  of 

light,  so  that  objects  do  not  appear  clearly  through. 
TRANSPARENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  tmns,  through,  and  par-«n»,  ap- 
pearing :  yielding  a  free  passage  to  the  rays  of  light,  so  that  objects 

appear  through. 
TRANSLUCENT,  derived  from  the  Latin  trans,  through,  and  lux,  light : 

yielding  a  partially  obstructed  passage  to  the  rays  of  light,  so  that  light 

only  appears  through. 
TENACIOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  tenax,  holding :    having  particles 

uniting  firmly  together.     Gum   being  tenacious,  the  particles  cannot 

easily  be  separated,  and  on  this  account  it  acts  as  a  cement ;  glue,  be» 

ing  more  tenacious,  acts  as  a  still  stronger  cement. 
TUItULAR,  derived  from  the  Latin  tubul-?t,<{,  a  small  tube :  having  the 

form  of  a  hollow  cylinder. 
TOUGH,  capable  of  being  bent  or  extended  without  breaking. 


YOCABULARY.  407 

TARTAR,  a  hard  substance  deposited  on  the  sides  of  a  cask  during  the 

fermentation  of  wine.  , 

TARTARIC  ACID,  tartar  combined  with  a  certain  portion  of  oxygen. 
TRIANGLE,  derived  fiom  the  Latin  tres,  three,  and  angul-ws,  an  angle  :  a 

form  that  has  three  angles. 
TRIANGULAR,  having  the  form  of  a  triangle. 
TRANSMITTED,  derived  from  the  Latin   trans,  across,  and  mitt-ere,  to 

send :  sent  from  one  person  or  place  to  another. 
VACUUM,   derived    from   the  Latin  vacu-ws,   empty :    space  completely 

unoccupied. 
VELOCITY,  derived  from  the  Latin  velox,  swift:  speed,  swiftness. 
VISCID,  derived  from  the  Latin  visc-?«s,  bird  lime  :  glutinous,  tenacious. 
VITRIFIABLE,  derived  from  the  Latin,  \itv-u7n,  glass,  and  ^-eri,  capable 

of  being  converted  into  glass. 
VOLATILE,  derived  from  the  Latin  vol-are,  to  fly :  passing  or  flying  olf 

naturally  by  evaporation. 
UNCTUOUS,  derived  from  the  Latin  unct-w,s,  anointed :  fat,  clammy,  oily. 


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